APersian miniature (Persian:نگارگری ایرانی,romanized: negârgari-ye Irâni) is a smallPersian painting on paper, whether a book illustration or a separate work of art intended to be kept in an album of such works called amuraqqa. The techniques are broadly comparable to theWestern Medieval andByzantine traditions ofminiatures inilluminated manuscripts.
Although there is an equally well-established Persian tradition of wall-painting, the survival rate and state of preservation of miniatures is better, and miniatures are much the best-known form of Persian painting in the West, and many of the most important examples are in Western, or Turkish, museums. Miniature painting became a significantgenre inPersian art in the 13th century, receivingChinese influence after theMongol conquests, and the highest point in the tradition was reached in the 15th and 16th centuries. The tradition continued, under some Western influence, after this, and has many modern exponents. The Persian miniature was the dominant influence on otherIslamic miniature traditions, principally theOttoman miniature inTurkey, and theMughal miniature in theIndian subcontinent.
Persian art under Islamhad never completely forbidden the human figure, and in the miniature tradition the depiction of figures, often in large numbers, is central. This was partly because the miniature is a private form, kept in a book or album and only shown to those the owner chooses. It was therefore possible to be more free than in wall paintings or other works seen by a wider audience. TheQuran and other purely religious works are not known to have been illustrated in this way, though histories and other works of literature may include religiously related scenes, including thosedepicting the Islamic prophet Muhammad, after 1500 usually without showing his face.[1]
As well as the figurative scenes in miniatures, which this article concentrates on, there was a parallel style of non-figurative ornamental decoration which was found in borders and panels in miniature pages, and spaces at the start or end of a work or section, and often in whole pages acting as frontispieces. InIslamic art this is referred to as "illumination", and manuscripts of the Quran and other religious books often included considerable number of illuminated pages.[2] The designs reflected contemporary work in other media, in later periods being especially close to book-covers andPersian carpets, and it is thought that many carpet designs were created by court artists and sent to the workshops in the provinces.[3]
In later periods miniatures were increasingly created as single works to be included in albums calledmuraqqa, rather than illustrated books. This allowed non-royal collectors to afford a representative sample of works from different styles and periods.
The bright and pure colouring of the Persian miniature is one of its most striking features. Normally all thepigments used are mineral-based ones which keep their bright colours very well if kept in proper conditions, the main exception being silver, mostly used to depict water, which will oxidize to a rough-edged black over time.[4] The conventions of Persian miniatures changed slowly; faces are normally youthful and seen in three-quarters view, with a plump rounded lower face better suited to portraying typical Central Asian or Chinese features than those of most Persians. Lighting is even, without shadows orchiaroscuro. Walls and other surfaces are shown either frontally, or as at (to modern eyes) an angle of about 45 degrees, often giving the modern viewer the unintended impression that a building is (say) hexagonal in plan. Buildings are often shown in complex views, mixing interior views through windows or "cutaways" with exterior views of other parts of a facade. Costumes and architecture are always those of the time.[5]
Many figures are often depicted, with those in the main scene normally rendered at the same size, and recession (depth in the picture space) indicated by placing more distant figures higher up in the space. More important figures may be somewhat larger than those around them, and battle scenes can be very crowded indeed. Great attention is paid to the background, whether of a landscape or buildings, and the detail and freshness with which plants and animals, the fabrics of tents, hangings or carpets, or tile patterns are shown is one of the great attractions of the form. The dress of figures is equally shown with great care, although artists understandably often avoid depicting the patterned cloth that many would have worn. Animals, especially the horses that very often appear, are mostly shown sideways on; even the love-stories that constitute much of the classic material illustrated are conducted largely in the saddle, as far as the prince-protagonist is concerned.[6] Landscapes are very often mountainous (the plains that make up much of Persia are rarely attempted), this being indicated by a high undulating horizon, and outcrops of bare rock which, like the clouds in the normally small area of sky left above the landscape, are depicted in conventions derived from Chinese art. Even when a scene in a palace is shown, the viewpoint often appears to be from a point some metres in the air.[7]
The earliest miniatures appeared unframed horizontally across the page in the middle of text, following Byzantine and Arabic precedents, but in the 14th century the vertical format was introduced, perhaps influenced by Chinese scroll-paintings. This is used in all the luxury manuscripts for the court that constitute the most famous Persian manuscripts, and the vertical format dictates many characteristics of the style.[8]
The miniatures normally occupy a full page, later sometimes spreading across two pages to regain a square or horizontal "landscape" format. There are often panels of text or captions inside the picture area, which is enclosed in a frame, eventually of several ruled lines with a broader band of gold or colour. The rest of the page is often decorated with dense designs of plants and animals in a mutedgrisaille, often gold and brown; text pages without miniatures often also have such borders. In later manuscripts, elements of the miniature begin to expand beyond the frame, which may disappear on one side of the image, or be omitted completely.[9]
Another later development was the album miniature, conceived as a single picture rather than a book illustration, though such images may be accompanied by short lyric poems. The withdrawal of ShahTahmasp I from commissioning illustrated books in the 1540s probably encouraged artists to transfer to these cheaper works for a wider circle of patrons.[10] Albums ormuraqqas were assembled by collectors with album miniatures, specimen pages of calligraphy, and miniatures taken from older books, to which border paintings were often added when they were remounted. Album miniatures usually showed a few figures on a larger scale, with less attention to the background, and tended to become drawings with some tints of coloured wash, rather than fully painted.
In the example at right the clothes are fully painted, and the background uses the gold grisaille style earlier reserved for marginal decoration, as in the miniature at the head of the article. Many were individual portraits, either of notable figures (but initially rarely portraits of rulers), or of idealized beautiful youths. Others were scenes of lovers in a garden or picnics. From about the middle of the 16th century these types of images became dominant, but they gradually declined in quality and originality and tended towards conventional prettiness and sentimentality.[11]
Books were sometimes refurbished and added to after an interval of many years, adding or partly repainting miniatures, changing the border decoration, and making other changes, not all improvements.[12] TheConference of the Birds miniature in the gallery below is an addition of 1600 to a manuscript of over a century earlier, and elements of the style appear to represent an effort to match the earlier miniatures in the book.[13] The famous paintingPrinces of the House of Timur was first painted in 1550-55 in Persia for the exiled Mughal princeHumayun, who largely began the Mughal miniature tradition by taking back Persian miniaturists when he gained the throne. It was then twice updated in India (c.1605 and 1628) to show later generations of the royal house.[14] The dimensions of the manuscripts covered a range not dissimilar to typical modern books, though with a more vertical ratio; many were as small as a modern paperback, others larger. Shah Tamasp'sShahnameh stood 47 cm high, and one exceptionalShahnameh fromTabriz of c. 1585 stood 53 cm high.[15]
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In the classic period artists were exclusively male, and normally grouped in workshops, of which the royal workshop (not necessarily in a single building) was much the most prestigious, recruiting talented artists from thebazaar workshops in the major cities. However the nature of the royal workshop remains unclear, as some manuscripts are recorded as being worked on in different cities, rulers often took artists with them on their travels, and at least some artists were able to work on private commissions.[18] As in Europe, sons very often followed their father into the workshop, but boys showing talent from any background might be recruited; at least one notable painter was born a slave. There were some highly placed amateur artists, includingShah Tahmasp I (reigned 1524–1576), who was also one of the greatest patrons of miniatures. Persian artists were highly sought after by other Islamic courts, especially those of theOttoman andMughal Empires, whose own traditions of miniature were based on Persian painting but developed rather different styles.[19]
The work was often divided between the main painter, who drew the outlines, and less senior painters who coloured in the drawing. InMughal miniatures at least, a third artist might do just the faces. Then there might be the border paintings; in most books using them these are by far the largest area of painted material as they occur on text pages as well. The miniatures in a book were often divided up between different artists, so that the best manuscripts represent an overview of the finest work of the period. The scribes orcalligraphers were normally different people, on the whole regarded as having a rather higher status than the artists - their names are more likely to be noted in the manuscript.
Royal librarians probably played a significant role in managing the commissions; the extent of direct involvement by the ruler himself is normally unclear. The scribes wrote the main text first, leaving spaces for the miniatures, presumably having made a plan for these with the artist and the librarian. The book covers were also richly decorated for luxury manuscripts, and when they too have figurative scenes these presumably used drawings by the same artists who created the miniatures. Paper was the normal material for the pages, unlike thevellum normally used in Europe for as long as the illuminated manuscript tradition lasted. The paper was highly polished, and when not given painted borders might be flecked with gold leaf.[20]
A unique survival from the Timurid period, found "pasted inconspicuously" in a muraqqa in theTopkapi Palace is thought to be a report to Baysunghur from his librarian. After a brief and high-flown introduction, "Petition from the most humble servants of the royal library, whose eyes are as expectant of the dust from the hooves of the regal steed as the ears of those who fast are for the cry ofAllahu akbar ..." it continues with very businesslike and detailed notes on what each of some twenty-five named artists, scribes and craftsmen has been up to over a period of perhaps a week: "Amir Khalil has finished the waves in two sea-scenes of theGulistan and will begin to apply colour. ... All the painters are working on painting and tinting seventy-five tent-poles .... Mawlana Ali is designing a frontispiece illumination for theShahnama. His eyes were sore for a few days."[21] Apart from book arts, designs for tent-makers, tile-makers, woodwork and a saddle are mentioned, as is the progress of the "begim's little chest".[22]
The ancient Persian religion ofManichaeism made considerable use of images; not only was the founding prophetMani (c.216–276) a professional artist, at least according to later Islamic tradition, but one of the sacred books of the religion, theArzhang, was illustrated by the prophet himself, whose illustrations (probably essentially cosmological diagrams rather than images with figures) were regarded as part of the sacred material and always copied with the text. Unfortunately, the religion was repressed strongly from theSasanian era and onwards so that only tiny fragments of Manichean art survive. These no doubt influenced the continuing Persian tradition, but little can be said about how. It is also known thatSasanian palaces had wall-paintings, but only fragments of these have survived.[23]
There are narrative scenes in pottery (Mina'i ceramics), though it is hard to judge how these relate to lost contemporary book painting.[24] Recent scholarship has noted that, although surviving early examples are now uncommon, human figurative art was also a continuous tradition in Islamic lands in secular contexts (such as literature, science, and history); as early as the 9th century, such art flourished during theAbbasid Caliphate (c. 749-1258, across Spain, North Africa, Egypt, Syria, Turkey, Mesopotamia, and Persia).[25]
The great period of the Persian miniature began when Persia was ruled by a succession of foreign dynasties, who came from the east and north. Before the MongolIlkhanate (1253–1353), narrative representations are only known in Persia in architecture and ceramics.[26] With the large tradition ofArabic manuscripts in the 12th-13th centuries, illustrated manuscripts probably also existed in Persia, but none are known.[27][26]
The earliest known illustrated manuscript in the Persian language is an early 13th century copy of the epicVarka and Golshah, which was most probably created inKonya inCentral Anatolia, under the SeljukSultanate of Rum.[28][29][30][31] It is the only Persian-language illustrated manuscript securely datable to before Mongol conquest, and it can be dated to circa 1250.[32][33]
The traumaticMongol invasion of1219 onwards established theIlkhanate as a branch of theMongol Empire, and despite the huge destruction of life and property, the new court had a galvanising effect on book painting, importing many Chinese works and probably artists, with their long-established tradition of narrative painting, and sponsoring a cultural revival and the creation of history-related literary works.[37] Baghdadwas conquered in 1258, andMosul in 1262.
The earliest known Persian-language manuscript ofKalīla wa-Dimna (Topkapl Palace Museum Library, H.363) appears around this time: it is dated to 1265-80, and was likely produced inBaghdad, or possiblyMosul.[38][39] Another known illustrated Persian manuscript under the Mongols is theTarikh-i Jahangushay (1290), commissioned by the Mongol emirArghun Aqa, also one of the earliest examples of "Metropolitan style" of the MongolIlkhanid court, followed by the 1297-1299 manuscriptManafi' al-hayawan (Ms M. 500), commissioned by Mongol rulerGhazan.[37] The Ilkhanids continued to migrate between summer and winter quarters, which together with other travels for war, hunting and administration, made the portable form of the illustrated book the most suitable vehicle for painting, as it also was for mobile European medieval rulers.[40] TheGreat Mongol Shahnameh, now dispersed, is the outstanding manuscript of the following period.[41]
It was only in the 14th century that the practice began of commissioning illustrated copies of classic works ofPersian poetry, above all theShahnameh ofFerdowsi (940–1020) and theKhamsa of Nizami, which were to contain many of the finest miniatures. Previously book illustration, of works in both Arabic and Persian, had been concentrated in practical and scientific treatises, often following at several removes the Byzantine miniatures copied when ancient Greek books were translated.[42] However a 14th-century flowering of Arabic illustrated literary manuscripts in Syria and Egypt collapsed at the end of the century, leaving Persia the undisputed leader in Islamic book illustration.[43] Many of the best miniatures from early manuscripts were removed from their books in later centuries and transferred to albums, several of which are now inIstanbul; this complicates tracing the art history of the period.[44]
![Ibn Bakhtishu's Manafi al-Hayawan ("Uses of Animals"), commissioned by Ghazan. Maragha, Persia, 1297–1299. Morgan Library & Museum (Ms. M.500).[34]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aArabischer_Maler_um_1295_001.jpg)
Once the Ilkhanate fragmented in 1335, various dynasties fought for supremacy in Persian lands: descendants of the Mongols such as theJalayirids and theChobanids, or local dynasties such as theInjuids and theMuzaffarids. They all prolonged the art of the miniatures developed by the Mongols, sometimes with local refinements and variations. The Jalayirids expanded the limits of refinement and delicacy,[45] while the Injuids attempted to develop an original style as a symbol of their recovered political independence.[46][47]
._Kalila_and_Dimna._F.1422.jpg)
![Divan of Khvaju Kirmani, illustrations by Junayd, dated 1396, Baghdad.[48] This is "the most firmly dated illustrated and high-quality Jalayirid manuscript".[45]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aJunaid_002.jpg)
![Injuid miniature: Bahram Gur and Azadeh in hunting place, Istanbul Shahnameh, Shiraz 1331.[49]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBahram_Gur_and_Azadeh_in_hunting_place%2c_Istanbul_Shahnameh%2c_Shiraz_1331.jpg)
![Frontispiece with Prince and attendants, probably circa 1390, final Muzaffarid period, Shiraz.[50]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aFrontispiece_with_Prince_and_attendants%2c_probably_circa_1390%2c_final_Muzaffarid_period%2c_Shiraz._Kalila_and_Dimna%2c_BNF_Persan_377.jpg)
After 1335 the Ilkhanate split into several warring dynasties, all swept aside by the new invasion ofTimur from 1381. He established theTimurid dynasty, bringing a fresh wave of Chinese influence, who were replaced by theQara Qoyunlu in 1452, followed by theAq Qoyunlu from 1468, who were in turn replaced by theSafavid dynasty by 1501; they ruled until 1722. After a chaotic periodNader Shah took control, but there was no long-lived dynasty until theQajar dynasty, who ruled from 1794 to 1925.[51]
Tabriz in the north-west of Iran is the longest established centre of production, andBaghdad (then under Persian rule) was often important.Shiraz in the south, sometimes the capital of a sub-ruler, was a centre from the late 14th century, andHerat, now inAfghanistan, was important in the periods when it was controlled from Persia, especially when the Timurid princeBaysonqor was governor in the 1420s; he was then the leading patron in Persia, commissioning theBaysonghor Shahnameh and other works. Each centre developed its own style, which were largely reconciled and combined under the Safavids.[52]
The schools of Herat, where theTimurid royal workshops usually were, had developed a style of classical restraint and elegance, and the painters of Tabriz, a more expressive and imaginative style. Tabriz was the former capital of the Turkmen rulers, and in the earlySafavid era the styles were gradually harmonized in works like theShahnameh of Shah Tahmasp.[53] But a famous unfinished miniature showingRostam asleep, while his horseRakhsh fights off a lion, was probably made for this manuscript, but was never finished and bound in, perhaps because its vigorous Tabriz style did not please Tahmasp. It appears to be by Sultan Mohammad, whose later works in the manuscript show a style adapted to the court style ofBizhad. It is now in theBritish Museum.[54]
Shah Ismail, by conquering both the Aq Qoyunlu and the Timurids, took over the two dominant Persian artistic schools of the time in the domain of calligraphy and miniatures: the westernTurkoman school based inTabriz, characterized by vibrant and colorful compositions, which had developed under his uncleSultan Yaqub Aq Qoyunlu, and the easternTimurid school based inHerat and brought to new summits bySultan Husayn Bayqara, which was more balanced and restrained and used subtle colors.[56] Artists from both realms were made to work together, such asBehzad from Herat andSultan Mohammed from Tabriz, to collaborate on major manuscripts such as theShahnameh of Shah Tahmasp.[56] This synthesis created the new Safavid imperial style.[56] This new aesthetic also affected traditional crafts, including textiles, carpets, and metalwork, and influenced the styles ofOttoman Turkey andMughal India.[56]
Miniatures from the Safavid and later periods are far more common than earlier ones, but although some prefer the simpler elegance of the early 15th and 16th centuries, most art historians agree in seeing a rise in quality up to the mid-16th century, culminating in a series of superb royal commissions by the Safavid court, such as theShahnameh of Shah Tahmasp (or Houghton Shahnameh). There was a crisis in the 1540s when ShahTahmasp I, previously a patron on a large scale, ceased to commission works, apparently losing interest in painting. Some of his artists went to the court of his nephewIbrahim Mirza, governor ofMashad from 1556, where there was a brief flowering of painting until the Shah fell out with his nephew in 1565, including aHaft Awrang, the "Freer Jami". Other artists went to the Mughal court.[57]
After this period, and from the 17th century onward, the number of illustrated book manuscript commissions falls off, and the tradition falls into over-sophistication and decline.[58]
Before Chinese influence was introduced, figures were tied to the ground line and included "backgrounds of solid color", or in "clear accordance with indigenous artistic traditions". However, once influenced by the Chinese, Persian painters gained much more freedom through the Chinese traditions of "unrestricted space and infinite planes". Much of the Chinese influence in Persian art is probably indirect, transmitted through Central Asia. There appear to be no Persian miniatures that are clearly the work of a Chinese artist or one trained in China itself. The most prestigious Chinese painting tradition, ofliteratilandscape painting on scrolls, has little influence; instead the closest parallels are with wall-paintings and motifs such as clouds and dragons found in Chinese pottery, textiles, and other decorative arts.[60] The format and composition of the Persian miniature received strong influence from Chinese paintings.[61]
The Ilkhanid rulers did not convert to Islam for several decades, meanwhile remainingTantric Buddhists or Christians (usuallyNestorians). While very few traces now remain, Buddhist and Christian images were probably easily available to Persian artists at this period.[62] Especially in Ilkhanid and TimuridMongol-Persian mythological miniatures, mythical beasts were portrayed in a style close to the Chineseqilin,fenghuang (phoenix),bixie andChinese dragon, though they have a much more aggressive character in Islamic art, and are often seen fighting each other or natural beasts.[63]
![Nobles beneath a Blossoming Branch, Shaykhi, Aq Qoyunlu Tabriz, c. 1470–90.[64]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aFlute_player_under_a_plum_tree.jpg)
![Chinese-style scene, signed by Shaykhi, ca. 1480. Tabriz. Topkapı Palace Library, H.2153.[65]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aChinese_style_scene%2c_Aqqoyunlu_Turkmen%2c_signed_by_Shaykhi%2c_ca._1480._Tabriz._Topkap%25C4%25B1_Palace_Library%2c_H.2153%2c_fol._146v.jpg)
The workshop tradition and division of labour within both an individual miniature and a book, as described above, complicates the attribution of paintings. Some are inscribed with the name of the artist, sometimes as part of the picture itself, for example as if painted on tiles in a building, but more often as a note added on the page or elsewhere; where and when being often uncertain. Because of the nature of the works, literary and historical references to artists, even if they are relied upon, usually do not enable specific paintings to be identified, though there are exceptions. The reputation ofKamāl ud-Dīn Behzād Herawī, or Behzād, the leading miniaturist of the late Timurid era, and founder of the Safavid school, remained supreme in thePersianate world, and at least some of his work, and style, can be identified with a degree of confidence, despite a good deal of continuing scholarly debate.[66]
Sultan Mohammed,Mir Sayyid Ali, andAqa Mirak, were leading painters of the next generation, the Safavid culmination of the classic style, whose attributed works are found together in several manuscripts.[67]Abd al-Samad was one of the most successful Persian painters recruited by theMughal Emperors to work in India. In the next generation,Reza Abbasi worked in the Late Safavid period producing mostly album miniatures, and his style was continued by many later painters.[68] In the 19th century, the miniatures of Abu'l-Hasan Khan Gaffari (Sani ol molk), active inQajar Persia, showed originality, naturalism, and technical perfection.[69]Mahmoud Farshchian is a contemporary miniaturist whose style has broadened the scope of this art.
_Topkapi_Palace_Library%2c_Istanbul.jpg)
| Art of miniature | |
|---|---|
| Country | Azerbaijan, Iran, Turkey, and Uzbekistan |
| Reference | 01598 |
| Inscription history | |
| Inscription | 2020 (15th session) |
| List | Representative |
In 2020, UNESCO inscribed the art of miniature on its Representative List of theIntangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity upon the nomination of four countries in which it is an important element of their culture: Azerbaijan, Iran, Turkey, and Uzbekistan.[70]
In their rationale for inscription on the list, the nominators highlighted that "The patterns of the miniature represent beliefs, worldviews and lifestyles in a pictorial fashion and also gained a new character through the Islamic influence. While there are stylistic differences between them, the art of miniature as practised by the submitting States Parties shares crucial features. In all cases, it is a traditional craft typically transmitted through mentor-apprentice relationships (non-formal education) and considered as an integral part of each society's social and cultural identity".[70]
The French painterHenri Matisse said he was inspired by Persian miniatures. He visited the 1910 Munich exhibition of Persian miniatures and carpets, and noted that:"the Persian miniatures showed me the possibility of my sensations. That art had devices to suggest a greater space, a really plastic space. It helped me to get away from intimate painting".[71]
Persian miniatures are mentioned in the novelMy Name Is Red byOrhan Pamuk.
The Varqa and Gulshāh was probably made in theKonya sultanate.
The two scenes in the top and bottom registers (...) may be strongly influenced by contemporary Seljuk Persian (...) like those in the recently discovered Varqeh and Gulshah (p.92) (...) In the painting the facial cast of these Turks is obviously reflected, and so are the special fashions and accoutrements they favored. (p.162, commentary on image from p.91)
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)The earliest illustrated Arabic manuscripts that have survived date from the beginning of the 13th century, while the earliest illustrated Persian example (Istanbul, Topkapi Saray Library, MS H. 363) is from the last quarter of that century.
...the earliest surviving Persian manuscript of the text, H. 363 of the Topkapı Saray Library, datable to 1265–80.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)| Part ofa series on the |
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