Theperegrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), also known simply as theperegrine,[3] is acosmopolitanbird of prey (raptor) in thefamilyFalconidae. A large,crow-sizedfalcon, it has a blue-grey back, barred white underparts, and a black head. The peregrine is renowned for its speed. It can reach over 320 km/h (200 mph) during its characteristic hunting stoop (high-speed dive),[4] making it thefastest animal on the planet.[5][6][7] According to aNational Geographic TV program, the highest measured speed of a peregrine falcon is 389 km/h (242 mph).[8][9] However, radar tracks have never confirmed this, and unimpeachable measurements of speeds even close to the oft-quoted 300 km/h (190 mph) have never been reliably confirmed,[10] with the highest reliably measured speed being 184 km/h (114 mph). As is typical forbird-eating (avivore) raptors, peregrine falcons aresexually dimorphic, with females being considerably larger than males.[11][12] Historically, it has also been known as "black-cheeked falcon" in Australia,[13] and "duck hawk" inNorth America.[14]
The breeding range includes land regions from theArctic tundra to thetropics. It can be found nearly everywhere on Earth, except extremepolar regions, very high mountains, and mosttropical rainforests; the only major ice-free landmass from which it is entirely absent isNew Zealand. This makes it the world's most widespreadraptor[15] and one of the most widely found wild birdspecies. In fact, the only land-based bird species found over a larger geographic area owes its success tohuman-led introduction; thedomestic andferal pigeons are both domesticated forms of therock dove, a major prey species for Eurasian Peregrine populations. Due to their abundance over most other bird species in cities, feral pigeons support many peregrine populations as a staple food source, especially inurban settings.
The peregrine is a highly successful example ofurban wildlife in much of its range, taking advantage of tall buildings as nest sites and an abundance of prey such as pigeons and ducks. Both the English andscientific names of thisspecies mean "wandering falcon", referring to themigratory habits of many northern populations. A total of 18 or 19 regionalsubspecies are accepted, which vary in appearance; disagreement existed in the past over whether the distinctiveBarbary falcon was represented by two subspecies ofFalco peregrinus or was a separate species,F. pelegrinoides, and several of the other subspecies were originally described as species. The genetic differential between them (and also the difference in their appearance) is very small, only about 0.6–0.8% genetically differentiated, showing the divergence is relatively recent, during the time of theLast Ice Age;[16] all the major ornithological authorities now treat the barbary falcon as a subspecies.[17]
Although its diet consists almost exclusively of medium-sized birds, the peregrine will sometimes hunt small mammals, small reptiles, or even insects. Reaching sexual maturity at one year, itmates for life and nests in ascrape, normally on cliff edges or, in recent times, on tall human-made structures.[18] The peregrine falcon became an endangered species in many areas because of the widespread use of certain pesticides, especiallyDDT. Since the ban on DDT from the early 1970s, populations have recovered, supported by large-scale protection of nesting places and releases to the wild.[19]
The peregrine falcon is a well-respectedfalconry bird due to its strong hunting ability, high trainability, versatility, and availability viacaptive breeding. It is effective on mostgame bird species, from small to large. It has also been used as a religious, royal, or national symbol across multiple eras and areas of human civilization.
The peregrine falcon has a body length of 34 to 58 cm (13–23 in) and a wingspan from 74 to 120 cm (29–47 in).[11][20] The male and female have similar markings andplumage but, as with manybirds of prey, the peregrine falcon displays markedsexual dimorphism in size, with the female measuring up to 30% larger than the male.[21] Males weigh 330 to 1,000 g (12–35 oz) and the noticeably larger females weigh 700 to 1,500 g (25–53 oz). In most subspecies, males weigh less than 700 g (25 oz) and females weigh more than 800 g (28 oz), and cases of females weighing about 50% more than their male breeding mates are not uncommon.[12][22][23] The standard linear measurements of peregrines are: the wing chord measures 26.5 to 39 cm (10.4–15.4 in), the tail measures 13 to 19 cm (5.1–7.5 in) and the tarsus measures 4.5 to 5.6 cm (1.8–2.2 in).[15]
Shows the appearance of Peregrine Falcon
The back and the long pointed wings of the adult are usually bluish black to slate grey with indistinct darker barring (see "Subspecies"below); the wingtips are black.[20] The white to rusty underparts are barred with thin clean bands of dark brown or black.[15] The tail, coloured like the back but with thin clean bars, is long, narrow, and rounded at the end with a black tip and a white band at the very end. The top of the head and a "moustache" along the cheeks are black, contrasting sharply with the pale sides of the neck and white throat.[24] Thecere is yellow, as are the feet, and thebeak andclaws are black.[25] The upper beak is notched near the tip, anadaptation which enables falcons to kill prey by severing thespinal column at the neck.[11][12][4] An immature bird is much browner, with streaked, rather than barred, underparts, and has a pale bluish cere and orbital ring.[11]
A study shows that their blackmalar stripe exists to reduceglare fromsolar radiation, allowing them to see better. Photos fromThe Macaulay Library andiNaturalist showed that the malar stripe is thicker where there is more solar radiation.[26] That supports the solar glare hypothesis.
Falco peregrinus was first described under its currentbinomial name by English ornithologistMarmaduke Tunstall in his 1771 workOrnithologia Britannica.[27] The scientific nameFalco peregrinus is aMedieval Latin phrase that was used byAlbertus Magnus in 1225.Peregrinus is Latin, meaning "one from abroad" or "coming from foreign parts". It is likely the name was used as juvenile birds were taken while journeying to their breeding location (rather than from the nest), as falcon nests are often difficult to get at.[28] The Latin term for falcon,falco, is related tofalx, meaning "sickle", in reference to the silhouette of the falcon's long, pointed wings in flight.[4]
The peregrine falcon belongs to agenus whose lineage includes thehierofalcons[note 1] and theprairie falcon (F. mexicanus). This lineage probably diverged from other falcons towards the end of theLate Miocene or in theLate Pliocene, about 3–8 million years ago (mya).[16][29][30][31][32][33][34] As the peregrine-hierofalcon group includes bothOld World and North American species, it is likely that the lineage originated in westernEurasia or Africa. Its relationship to other falcons is not clear, as the issue is complicated by widespreadhybridization confoundingmtDNAsequence analyses. One genetic lineage of thesaker falcon (F. cherrug) is known[29][30] to have originated from a male saker ancestor producing fertile young with a female peregrine ancestor, and the descendants further breeding with sakers.[35]
Numeroussubspecies ofFalco peregrinus have been described, with 18 accepted by the IOC World Bird List,[36] and 19 accepted by the 1994Handbook of the Birds of the World,[11][12][37] which considers theBarbary falcon of theCanary Islands and coastalNorth Africa to be two subspecies (F. p. pelegrinoides andF. p. babylonicus) ofFalco peregrinus, rather than a distinct species,F. pelegrinoides. The following map shows the general ranges of these 19 subspecies.
Breeding ranges of the 19 subspeciesIllustration of the subspeciesbabylonicus byJohn GouldA juvenile of the subspeciesernesti inMount Mahawu,North Sulawesi,IndonesiaAn adult of either the subspeciespealei ortundrius by its nest inAlaskaF. p. submelanogenys at Herdsman Lake, near Perth, Western Australia
Falco peregrinus anatum, described byBonaparte in 1838,[38] is known as the American peregrine falcon or "duck hawk"; its scientific name means "duck peregrine falcon". At one time, it was partly included inF. p. leucogenys. It is mainly found in theRocky Mountains. It was formerly common throughout North America between the tundra and northernMexico, where currentreintroduction efforts are being made to restore the population.[38] Most matureF. p. anatum, except those that breed in more northern areas, winter in their breeding range. Mostvagrants that reach western Europe seem to belong to the more northern and strongly migratoryF. p. tundrius, only considered distinct since 1968. It is similar to thenominate subspecies but is slightly smaller; adults are somewhat paler and less patterned below, but juveniles are darker and more patterned below. Males weigh 500 to 700 g (1.1–1.5 lb), while females weigh 800 to 1,100 g (1.8–2.4 lb).[23] It becameregionally extinct in eastern North America in the mid 20th century, and populations there now are hybrids as a result of reintroductions of birds from elsewhere.[39]
Falco peregrinus babylonicus, described byP.L. Sclater in 1861, is found in easternIran along theHindu Kush and theTian Shan to theMongolian Altai ranges. A few birds winter in northern and northwestern India, mainly in dry semi-desert habitats.[40] It is paler thanF. p. pelegrinoides and similar to a small, palelanner falcon (Falco biarmicus). Males weigh 330 to 400 grams (12 to 14 oz), while females weigh 513 to 765 grams (18.1 to 27.0 oz).[12]
Falco peregrinus brookei, described bySharpe in 1873, is also known as the Mediterranean peregrine falcon or the Maltese falcon.[note 2] It includesF. p. caucasicus and most specimens of the proposed raceF. p. punicus, though others may beF. p. pelegrinoides (Barbary falcons), or perhaps the rare hybrids between these two which might occur aroundAlgeria. They occur from theIberian Peninsula around the Mediterranean, except inarid regions, to theCaucasus. They are non-migratory. It is smaller than thenominate subspecies and the underside usually has a rusty hue.[15] Males weigh around 445 g (0.981 lb), while females weigh up to 920 g (2.03 lb).[12]
Falco peregrinus calidus, described byJohn Latham in 1790, it was formerly calledF. p. leucogenys and includesF. p. caeruleiceps. It breeds in theArctic tundra of Eurasia fromMurmansk Oblast to roughlyYana andIndigirka Rivers,Siberia. It is completely migratory and travels south in winter as far asSouth Asia andsub-Saharan Africa. It is often seen around wetland habitats.[41] It is paler than thenominate subspecies, especially on the crown. Males weigh 588 to 740 g (1.296–1.631 lb), while females weigh 925 to 1,333 g (2.039–2.939 lb).[12]
Falco peregrinus cassini, described by Sharpe in 1873, is also known as the austral peregrine falcon. It includesF. p. kreyenborgi, the pallid falcon,[note 3] aleucistic colourmorph occurring in southernmost South America, which was long believed to be a distinct species.[42] Its range includes South America fromEcuador throughBolivia, northernArgentina andChile toTierra del Fuego and theFalkland Islands.[15] It is non-migratory. It is similar to thenominate subspecies, but slightly smaller with a black ear region. The pallid falcon morphF. p. kreyenborgi is medium grey above, has little barring below and has a head pattern like thesaker falcon (Falco cherrug), but the ear region is white.[42]
Falco peregrinus ernesti, described by Sharpe in 1894, is found from theSunda Islands to thePhilippines and south to easternNew Guinea and the nearbyBismarck Archipelago. Its geographical separation fromF. p. nesiotes requires confirmation. It is non-migratory. It differs from thenominate subspecies in the very dark, dense barring on its underside and its black ear coverts.
Falco peregrinus furuitii, described by Momiyama in 1927, is found on theIzu andOgasawara Islands south ofHonshū, Japan. It is non-migratory. It is very rare and may only remain on a single island.[11] It is a dark form, resemblingF. p. pealei in colour, but darker, especially on the tail.[15]
Falco peregrinus japonensis, described byGmelin in 1788, includesF. p. kleinschmidti,F. p. pleskei, andF. p. harterti, and seems to refer to intergrades withF. p. calidus. It is found from northeastSiberia toKamchatka (though it is possibly replaced byF. p. pealei on the coast there) andJapan. Northern populations are migratory, while those of Japan are resident. It is similar to thenominate subspecies, but the young are even darker than those ofF. p. anatum.
Falco peregrinus macropus, described bySwainson in 1837, is the Australian peregrine falcon or "black-cheeked falcon". It is found inAustralia in all regions except the southwest, where replaced byF. p. submelanogenys; some authorities treat the latter as a synonym ofF. p. macropus.[36][43] It is non-migratory. It is similar toF. p. brookei in appearance, but is slightly smaller and the ear region is entirely black. The feet are proportionally large.[15]
Falco peregrinus madens, described byRipley and Watson in 1963, is unusual in having somesexual dichromatism. If the Barbary falcon (see below) is considered a distinct species, it is sometimes placed therein. It is found in theCape Verde Islands and is non-migratory;[15] it is also endangered, with only six to eight pairs surviving.[11] Males have a rufous wash on the crown, nape, ears and back; the underside is conspicuously washed pinkish-brown. Females are tinged rich brown overall, especially on the crown and nape.[15]Illustration of the subspeciesF. p. minor byKeulemans, 1874
Falco peregrinus minor, first described byBonaparte in 1850. It was formerly often known asF. p. perconfusus.[37] It is sparsely and patchily distributed throughout much ofsub-Saharan Africa and widespread inSouthern Africa. It apparently reaches north along theAtlantic coast as far asMorocco. It is non-migratory and dark-coloured. This is the smallest subspecies, with smaller males weighing as little as approximately 300 g (11 oz).
Falco peregrinus peregrinator, described bySundevall in 1837, is known as the Indian peregrine falcon, black shaheen, Indian shaheen[note 4] orshaheen falcon.[48] It was formerly sometimes known asFalco atriceps orFalco shaheen. Its range includesSouth Asia from across theIndian subcontinent toSri Lanka and southeasternChina. In India, the shaheen falcon is reported from all states exceptUttar Pradesh, mainly from rocky and hilly regions. The shaheen falcon is also reported from theAndaman and Nicobar Islands in theBay of Bengal.[40] It has a clutch size of 3 to 4 eggs, with the chicks fledging time of 48 days with an average nesting success of 1.32 chicks per nest. In India, apart from nesting on cliffs, it has also been recorded as nesting on man-made structures such as buildings and cellphone transmission towers.[40] A population estimate of 40 breeding pairs in Sri Lanka was made in 1996.[49] It is non-migratory and is small and dark, with rufous underparts. InSri Lanka this species is found to favour the higher hills, while the migrantcalidus is more often seen along the coast.[50]
Falco peregrinus peregrinus, thenominate (first-named) subspecies, described byTunstall in 1771, breeds over much of temperateEurasia between thetundra in the north and thePyrenees,Mediterranean region andAlpide belt in the south.[38] It is mainly non-migratory in Europe, butmigratory in Scandinavia and Asia. Males weigh 580 to 750 g (1.28–1.65 lb), while females weigh 925 to 1,300 g (2.039–2.866 lb).[12] It includesF. p. brevirostris,F. p. germanicus,F. p. rhenanus andF. p. riphaeus.
Falco peregrinus radama, described byHartlaub in 1861, is found inMadagascar and theComoros. It is non-migratory.[15]
Falco peregrinus submelanogenys, described byMathews in 1912, is theSouthwest Australian peregrine falcon. It is found in southwestern Australia and is non-migratory. Some authorities consider it a synonym of the widespread Australian subspeciesF. p. macropus.[36][43]
Falco peregrinus tundrius, described by C. M. White in 1968, was at one time included inF. p. leucogenys. It is found in the Arctic tundra ofNorth America toGreenland, and migrates to wintering grounds inCentral andSouth America.[47] Mostvagrants that reach western Europe belong to this subspecies, which was previously considered synonymous withF. p. anatum. It is the New World equivalent toF. p. calidus. It is smaller and paler thanF. p. anatum; most have a conspicuous white forehead and white in ear region, but the crown and "moustache" are very dark, unlike inF. p. calidus.[47] Juveniles are browner and less grey than inF. p. calidus and paler, sometimes almost sandy, than inF. p. anatum. Males weigh 500 to 700 g (1.1–1.5 lb), while females weigh 800 to 1,100 g (1.8–2.4 lb).[23] Despite its current recognition as a valid subspecies, a population genetic study of both pre-decline (i.e., museum) and recovered contemporary populations failed to distinguishF. p. anatum andF. p. tundrius genetically.[51]
The Barbary falcon is a subspecies of the peregrine falcon that inhabits parts of North Africa, from the Canary Islands to the Arabian Peninsula. There was discussion concerning the taxonomic status of the bird, with some considering it a subspecies of the peregrine falcon and others considering it a full species with two subspecies.[52]
Compared to the other peregrine falcon subspecies, Barbary falcons have a slimmer body[37] and a distinct plumage pattern. Despite numbers and range of these birds throughout the Canary Islands generally increasing, they are considered endangered, with human interference through falconry and shooting threatening their well-being. Falconry can further complicate the speciation and genetics of these Canary Islands falcons, as the practice promotes genetic mixing between individuals from outside the islands with those originating from the islands. Population density of the Barbary falcons on Tenerife, the biggest of the seven major Canary Islands, was found to be 1.27 pairs/100 km2, with the mean distance between pairs being 5869 ± 3338 m. The falcons were only observed near large and natural cliffs with a mean altitude of 697.6 m. Falcons show an affinity for tall cliffs away from human-mediated establishments and presence.
Barbary falcons have a red neck patch, but otherwise differ in appearance from the peregrine falcon proper merely according toGloger's rule, relatingpigmentation toenvironmental humidity.[53] The Barbary falcon has a peculiar way of flying, beating only the outer part of its wings asfulmars sometimes do; this also occurs in the peregrine falcon, but less often and far less pronounced.[12] The Barbary falcon'sshoulder andpelvis bones are stout by comparison with the peregrine falcon and its feet are smaller.[37] Barbary falcons breed at different times of year than neighboring peregrine falcon subspecies,[12][29][30][32][37][54][55] but they are capable of interbreeding.[56] There is a 0.6–0.7% genetic distance in the peregrine falcon-Barbary falcon ("peregrinoid") complex.[32]
Closeup of head showing nostril tubercleSilhouette in normal flight (left) and at the start of a stoop (right)In its habitat in theRann of Kutch,Gujarat, India
The peregrine falcon lives mostly alongmountain ranges,river valleys,coastlines, and increasingly incities.[15] In mild-winter regions, it is usually a permanent resident, and some individuals, especially adult males, will remain on the breeding territory. Only populations that breed in Arcticclimates typically migrate great distances during the northern winter.[57]
The peregrine falcon reaches faster speeds than any other animal on the planet when performing the stoop,[5] which involves soaring to a great height and then diving steeply at speeds of over 320 km/h (200 mph), hitting one wing of its prey so as not to harm itself on impact.[4] The air pressure from such a dive could possibly damage a bird'slungs, but small bony tubercles on a falcon's nostrils are theorized to guide the powerful airflow away from the nostrils, enabling the bird to breathe more easily while diving by reducing the change in air pressure.[58] To protect their eyes, the falcons use theirnictitating membranes (third eyelids) to spread tears and clear debris from their eyes while maintaining vision. The distinctive malar stripe or 'moustache', a dark area of feathers below the eyes, is thought to reduce solar glare and improve contrast sensitivity when targeting fast moving prey in bright light condition; the malar stripe has been found to be wider and more pronounced in regions of the world with greater solar radiation supporting this solar glare hypothesis.[59] Peregrine falcons have aflicker fusion frequency of 129 Hz (cycles per second), very fast for a bird of its size, and much faster than mammals.[60] A study testing the flight physics of an "ideal falcon" found a theoretical speed limit at 400 km/h (250 mph) for low-altitude flight and 625 km/h (388 mph) for high-altitude flight.[61] In 2005, Ken Franklin recorded a falcon stooping at a top speed of 389 km/h (242 mph).[8]
The life span of peregrine falcons in the wild is up to 19 years 9 months.[62] Mortality in the first year is 59–70%, declining to 25–32% annually in adults.[12] Apart from suchanthropogenic threats ascollision with human-made objects, the peregrine may be killed by largerhawks andowls.[63]
An immature peregrine falcon eating its prey on the deck of a shipAn adult peregrine (F. p. calidus) consuming acommon teal inLittle Rann of Kutch, Gujarat, India
The peregrine falcon hunts most often at dawn and dusk, when prey are most active, but also nocturnally in cities, particularly during migration periods when hunting at night may become prevalent. Nocturnal migrants taken by peregrines include species as diverse asyellow-billed cuckoo,black-necked grebe,virginia rail, andcommon quail.[75] The peregrine requires open space in order to hunt, and therefore often hunts over open water,marshes,valleys, fields, andtundra, searching for prey either from a high perch or from the air.[83] Large congregations of migrants, especially species that gather in the open like shorebirds, can be quite attractive to a hunting peregrine. Once prey is spotted, it begins its stoop, folding back the tail and wings, with feet tucked.[24] Prey is typically struck and captured in mid-air; the peregrine falcon strikes its prey with a clenched foot, stunning or killing it with the impact, then turns to catch it in mid-air.[83] If its prey is too heavy to carry, a peregrine will drop it to the ground and eat it there. If they miss the initial strike, peregrines will chase their prey in a twisting flight.[84]
Although previously thought rare, several cases of peregrines contour-hunting, i.e., using natural contours to surprise and ambush prey on the ground, have been reported and even rare cases of prey being pursued on foot. In addition, peregrines have been documented preying on chicks in nests, from birds such as kittiwakes.[85] Prey is plucked before consumption.[58] A 2016 study showed that the presence of peregrines benefits non-preferred species while at the same time causing a decline in its preferred prey.[86] As of 2018, the fastest recorded falcon was at 242 mph (nearly 390 km/h). Researchers at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands and at Oxford University used 3D computer simulations in 2018 to show that the high speed allows peregrines to gain better maneuverability and precision in strikes.[87]
The peregrine falcon is sexually mature at one to three years of age, but in larger populations they breed after two to three years of age. A pairmates for life and returns to the same nesting spot annually. The courtship flight includes a mix of aerial acrobatics, precise spirals, and steep dives.[20] The male passes prey it has caught to the female in mid-air. To make this possible, the female actually flies upside-down to receive the food from the male's talons.
During the breeding season, the peregrine falcon is territorial; nesting pairs are usually more than 1 km (0.62 mi) apart, and often much farther, even in areas with large numbers of pairs.[88] The distance between nests ensures sufficient food supply for pairs and their chicks. Within a breeding territory, a pair may have several nesting ledges; the number used by a pair can vary from one or two up to seven in a 16-year period.
The peregrine falcon nests in a scrape, normally on cliff edges.[89] The female chooses a nest site, where she scrapes a shallow hollow in the loose soil, sand, gravel, or dead vegetation in which to lay eggs. No nest materials are added.[20] Cliff nests are generally located under an overhang, on ledges with vegetation. South-facing sites are favoured.[24] In some regions, as in parts ofAustralia and on the west coast of northern North America, large tree hollows are used for nesting. Before the demise of most European peregrines, a large population of peregrines in central and western Europe used the disused nests of other large birds.[25] In remote, undisturbed areas such as the Arctic, steep slopes and even low rocks and mounds may be used as nest sites. In many parts of its range, peregrines now also nest regularly on tall buildings or bridges; these human-made structures used for breeding closely resemble the natural cliff ledges that the peregrine prefers for its nesting locations.[11][88]
The pair defends the chosen nest site against other peregrines, and often againstravens,herons, andgulls, and if ground-nesting, also such mammals asfoxes,wolverines,felids,bears,wolves, andmountain lions.[88] Both nests and (less frequently) adults are predated by larger-bodied raptorial birds likeeagles, largeowls, orgyrfalcons. The most serious predators of peregrine nests in North America and Europe are thegreat horned owl and theEurasian eagle-owl. When reintroductions have been attempted for peregrines, the most serious impediments were these two species of owls routinely picking off nestlings, fledglings and adults by night.[90][91] Peregrines defending their nests have managed to kill raptors as large asgolden eagles andbald eagles (both of which they normally avoid as potential predators) that have come too close to the nest by ambushing them in a full stoop.[92] In one instance, when asnowy owl killed a newly fledged peregrine, the larger owl was in turn killed by a stooping peregrine parent.[93]
The date of egg-laying varies according to locality, but is generally from February to March in theNorthern Hemisphere, and from July to August in theSouthern Hemisphere, although the Australian subspeciesF. p. macropus may breed as late as November, andequatorial populations may nest anytime between June and December. If the eggs are lost early in the nesting season, the female usually lays another clutch, although this is extremely rare in the Arctic due to the short summer season. Generally three to four eggs, but sometimes as few as one or as many as five, are laid in the scrape.[94] The eggs are white to buff with red or brown markings.[94] They are incubated for 29 to 33 days, mainly by the female,[24] with the male also helping with the incubation of the eggs during the day, but only the female incubating them at night. The average number of young found in nests is 2.5, and the average number that fledge is about 1.5, due to the occasional production of infertile eggs and various natural losses of nestlings.[11][58][63]
After hatching, the chicks (called "eyases"[95]) are covered with creamy-white down and have disproportionately large feet.[88] The male (called the "tiercel") and the female (simply called the "falcon") both leave the nest to gather prey to feed the young.[58] The hunting territory of the parents can extend a radius of 19 to 24 km (12 to 15 mi) from the nest site.[96] Chicksfledge 42 to 46 days after hatching, and remain dependent on their parents for up to two months.[12]
The peregrine falcon is a highly admired falconry bird, and has been used infalconry for more than 3,000 years, beginning with nomads incentral Asia.[88] Its advantages in falconry include not only its athleticism and eagerness to hunt, but an equable disposition that leads to it being one of the easier falcons to train.[97] The peregrine falcon has the additional advantage of a natural flight style of circling above the falconer ("waiting on") for game to be flushed, and then performing an effective and exciting high-speed diving stoop to take thequarry. The speed of the stoop not only allows the falcon to catch fast flying birds, it also enhances the falcon's ability to execute maneuvers to catch highly agile prey,[98] and allows the falcon to deliver a knockout blow with a fist-like clenched talon against game that may be much larger than itself.[21]
Additionally the versatility of the species, with agility allowing capture of smaller birds and a strength and attacking style allowing capture of game much larger than themselves, combined with the wide size range of the many peregrine subspecies, means there is a subspecies suitable to almost any size and type of game bird. This size range, evolved to fit various environments and prey species, is from the larger females of the largest subspecies to the smaller males of the smallest subspecies, approximately five to one (approximately 1500 g to 300 g). The males of smaller and medium-sized subspecies, and the females of the smaller subspecies, excel in the taking of swift and agile small game birds such as dove, quail, and smaller ducks. The females of the larger subspecies are capable of taking large and powerful game birds such as the largest of duck species, pheasant, and grouse.
Peregrine falcons handled by falconers are also occasionally used to scare away birds at airports to reduce the risk ofbird-plane strikes, improving air-traffic safety.[99] They were also used to intercept homing pigeons during World War II.[100]
Peregrine falcons have been successfully bred in captivity, both for falconry and for release into the wild.[101] Until 2004 nearly all peregrines used for falconry in the US were captive-bred from the progeny of falcons taken before the USEndangered Species Act was enacted and from those few infusions of wild genes available from Canada and special circumstances. Peregrine falcons were removed from the United States' endangered species list in 1999. The successful recovery program was aided by the effort and knowledge of falconers – in collaboration withThe Peregrine Fund and state and federal agencies – through a technique calledhacking. Finally, after years of close work with the US Fish and Wildlife Service, a limited take of wild peregrines was allowed in 2004, the first wild peregrines taken specifically for falconry in over 30 years.
The development of captive breeding methods has led to peregrines being commercially available for falconry use, thus mostly eliminating the need to capture wild birds for support of falconry. The main reason for taking wild peregrines at this point is to maintain healthy genetic diversity in the breeding lines. Hybrids of peregrines andgyrfalcons are also available that can combine the best features of both species to create what many consider to be the ultimate falconry bird for the taking of larger game such as thesage-grouse. These hybrids combine the greater size, strength, and horizontal speed of the gyrfalcon with the natural propensity to stoop and greater warm weather tolerance of the peregrine.
Today, peregrines are regularly paired in captivity with other species such as thelanner falcon (F. biarmicus) to produce the "perilanner", a bird popular infalconry as it combines the peregrine's hunting skill with the lanner's hardiness, or thegyrfalcon to produce large, strikingly coloured birds for the use of falconers.
The peregrine falcon became an endangered species over much of its range because of the use oforganochlorine pesticides, especiallyDDT, during the 1950s, '60s, and '70s.[19] Pesticidebiomagnification causedorganochlorine to build up in the falcons' fat tissues, reducing the amount of calcium in their eggshells. With thinner shells, fewer falcon eggs survived until hatching.[83][102] In addition, the PCB concentrations found in these falcons are dependent upon the age of the falcon. While high levels are still found in young birds (only a few months old) and even higher concentrations are found in more mature falcons, with levels peaking in adult peregrine falcons.[103] These pesticides caused falcon prey to also have thinner eggshells (one example of prey being the black petrels).[103] In several parts of the world, such as the easternUnited States andBelgium, this species becamelocally extinct as a result.[12] An alternate point of view is that populations in eastern North America had vanished due to hunting and egg collection.[39] Following the ban of organochlorine pesticides, the reproductive success of Peregrines increased in Scotland in terms of territory occupancy and breeding success, although spatial variation in recovery rates indicate that in some areas Peregrines were also impacted by other factors such as persecution.[104]
Peregrine falcon recovery teams breed the species in captivity.[105] The chicks are usually fed through a chute or with ahand puppet mimicking a peregrine's head, so they cannot see toimprint on the human trainers.[57] Then, when they are old enough, the rearing box is opened, allowing the bird to train its wings. As the fledgling gets stronger, feeding is reduced, forcing the bird to learn to hunt. This procedure is calledhacking back to the wild.[106] To release a captive-bred falcon, the bird is placed in a special cage at the top of a tower or cliff ledge for some days or so, allowing it to acclimate itself to its future environment.[106]
Worldwide recovery efforts have been remarkably successful.[105] The widespread restriction of DDT use eventually allowed released birds to breed successfully.[57] The peregrine falcon was removed from theU.S.Endangered Species list on 25 August 1999.[57][107]
Some controversy has existed over the origins of captive breeding stock used bythe Peregrine Fund in the recovery of peregrine falcons throughout the contiguous United States. Several peregrine subspecies were included in the breeding stock, including birds of Eurasian origin. Due to thelocal extinction of the eastern population ofFalco peregrinus anatum, its near-extinction in the Midwest, and the limited gene pool within North American breeding stock, the inclusion of non-nativesubspecies was justified to optimize thegenetic diversity found within the species as a whole.[108]
During the 1970s, peregrine falcons in Finland experienced apopulation bottleneck as a result of large declines associated withbio-accumulation oforganochloride pesticides. However, the genetic diversity of peregrines in Finland is similar to other populations, indicating that high dispersal rates have maintained the genetic diversity of this species.[109]
Since peregrine falcon eggs and chicks are still often targeted by illegal poachers,[110] it is common practice not to publicise unprotected nest locations.[111]
Populations of the peregrine falcon have bounced back in most parts of the world. In the United Kingdom, there has been a recovery of populations since the crash of the 1960s. This has been greatly assisted by conservation and protection work led by theRoyal Society for the Protection of Birds. The RSPB estimated that there were 1,402 breeding pairs in the UK in 2011.[112][113] In Canada, where peregrines were identified as endangered in 1978 (in theYukon territory of northernCanada that year, only a single breeding pair was identified[114]), theCommittee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada declared the species no longer at risk in December 2017.[115]
Peregrines now breed in many mountainous and coastal areas, especially in the west and north, and nest in some urban areas, capitalising on the urbanferal pigeon populations for food.[116] Additionally, falcons benefit from artificial illumination, which allows the raptors to extend their hunting periods into the dusk when natural illumination would otherwise be too low for them to pursue prey. InEngland, this has allowed them to prey on nocturnal migrants such asredwings,fieldfares,starlings, andwoodcocks.[117]
In many parts of the world peregrine falcons have adapted to urban habitats, nesting oncathedrals,skyscraper window ledges, tower blocks,[118] and the towers ofsuspension bridges. Many of these nesting birds are encouraged, sometimes gathering media attention and often monitored by cameras.[119][note 6]
InEngland, peregrine falcons have become increasingly urban in distribution, particularly in southern areas where inland cliffs suitable as nesting sites are scarce. The first recorded urban breeding pair was observed nesting on theSwansea Guildhall in the 1980s.[117] InSouthampton, a nest prevented restoration of mobile telephony services for several months in 2013, afterVodafone engineers despatched to repair a faultytransmitter mast discovered a nest in the mast, and were prevented by theWildlife and Countryside Act – on pain of a possible prison sentence – from proceeding with repairs until the chicks fledged.[121]
InOregon,Portland houses ten percent of the state's peregrine nests, despite only covering around 0.1 percent of the state's land area.[117]
Due to its striking hunting technique, the peregrine has often been associated with aggression and martial prowess. The Ancient Egyptian solar deityRa was often represented as a man with the head of a peregrine falcon adorned with the solar disk, although mostEgyptologists agree that it is most likely aLanner falcon.Native Americans of theMississippian culture (c. 800–1500) used the peregrine, along with several other birds of prey, in imagery as a symbol of "aerial (celestial) power" and buried men of high status in costumes associating to the ferocity of raptorial birds.[122] In thelate Middle Ages, the Western European nobility that used peregrines for hunting, considered the bird associated withprinces in formal hierarchies of birds of prey, just below thegyrfalcon associated withkings. It was considered "a royal bird, more armed by its courage than its claws". Terminology used by peregrine breeders also used theOld French termgentil, "of noble birth; aristocratic", particularly with the peregrine.[123]
The Peregrine, byJ. A. Baker,[127][128] is widely regarded as one of the best nature books in English written in the twentieth century. Admirers of the book includeRobert Macfarlane,[129]Mark Cocker, who regards the book as "one of the most outstanding books on nature in the twentieth century"[130] andWerner Herzog, who called it "the one book I would ask you to read if you want to make films",[131] and said elsewhere "it has prose of the calibre that we have not seen sinceJoseph Conrad".[132] In the book, Baker recounts, in diary form, his detailed observations of peregrines (and their interaction with other birds) near his home inChelmsford, Essex, over a single winter from October to April.
An episode of the hour-long TV seriesStarman in 1986 titled "Peregrine" was about an injured peregrine falcon and the endangered species program. It was filmed with the assistance of the University of California's peregrine falcon project in Santa Cruz.[133]
In 1999 the Suzuki Corporation of Japan named a new motorcycle theSuzuki Hayabusa (隼 or はやぶさ、ハヤブサ), Japanese for peregrine falcon. The motorcycle was the fastest then available.[134]
^Also called "Kleinschmidt's falcon", but this might equally refer toF. p. kleinschmidti, which is ajunior synonym ofF. p. japonensis.
^Theshaheen (شاهین) of Arabic and Persian writers are usuallyBarbary falcons; those in Indian (शाहीन) and Pakistani (شاہین) sources normally refer toF. p. peregrinator.
^Colpocephalum falconii which was described from specimens found on the peregrine falcon,Colpocephalum subzerafae,Colpocephalum zerafae andNosopon lucidum (allMenoponidae),Degeeriella rufa (Philopteridae),Laemobothrion tinnunculi (Laemobothriidae). All are known from otherFalco species too.[20][64]
^Pizzey, Graham; Knight, Frank; Pizzey, Sarah (2012).The field guide to the birds of Australia. Sydney: Harper Collins Publishers.ISBN978-0-7322-9193-8.
^Friedmann, H. (1950). "The birds of North and Middle America".U.S. National Museum Bulletin.50 (11):1–793.
^Tunstall, Marmaduke (1771).Ornithologia Britannica: seu Avium omnium Britannicarum tam terrestrium, quam aquaticarum catalogus, sermone Latino, Anglico et Gallico redditus: cui subjuctur appendix avec alennigenas, in Angliam raro advenientes, complectens (in Latin). London: J. Dixwell.
^abLehr, Jay H.; Lehr, Janet K. (2000)."6.1.11".Standard handbook of environmental science, health, and technology. McGraw-Hill Professional.ISBN978-0-07-038309-8.
^abcPande, Satish; Yosef, Reuven; Mahabal, Anil (2009). "Distribution of the Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus babylonicus,F. p. calidus andF. p. peregrinator) in India with some notes on the nesting habits of the Shaheen Falcon". In Sielicki, Janusz (ed.).Peregrine Falcon populations – Status and Perspectives in the 21st Century. Mizera, Tadeusz. European Peregrine Falcon Working Group and Society for the Protection of Wild animals "Falcon", Poland and Turl Publishing & Poznan University of Life Sciences Press, Warsaw-Poznan. pp. 493–520.ISBN978-83-920969-6-2.
^Rasmussen, Pamela C.; Anderton, J.C. (2005).Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Vol. 2. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions. p. 116.ISBN978-84-87334-66-5.
^abEllis, David H.; Garat, Cesar P. (1983). "The Pallid FalconFalco kreyenborgi is a colour phase of the Austral Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus cassini)".Auk.100 (2):269–271.doi:10.1093/auk/100.2.269.
^abField guide to the birds of Australia. Camberwell, Vic: Penguin. 2010.ISBN978-0-670-07231-6.
^de Silva Wijeratne, Gehan; Warakagoda, Deepal; de Zylva, T.S.U. (2007). "Species description".A Photographic Guide to Birds of Sri Lanka. New Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd. pp. 37, 144.ISBN978-1-85974-511-3.
^Brown, J.W.; de Groot, P.J.vC.; Birt, T.P.; Seutin, G.; Boag, P.T.; Friesen, V.L. (2007). "Appraisal of the consequences of the DDT-induced bottleneck on the level and geographic distribution of neutral genetic variation in Canadian peregrine falcons,Falco peregrinus".Molecular Ecology.16 (2):327–343.Bibcode:2007MolEc..16..327B.doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03151.x.PMID17217348.S2CID40538579.
^Hogan, C. Michael, ed. (2010)."American Kestrel".Encyclopedia of Earth. Editor-in-chief C. Cleveland. U.S. National Council for Science and the Environment.
^Olmos, F.; Silva e Silva, R. (2003).Guará: Ambiente, Fauna e Flora dos Manguezais de Santos-Cubatão, Brasil (in Portuguese). São Paulo: Empresa das Artes. p. 111.ISBN978-85-89138-06-2.
^Mikula, P., Morelli, F., Lučan, R. K., Jones, D. N., & Tryjanowski, P. (2016). Bats as prey of diurnal birds: a global perspective. Mammal Review.
^Bradley, Mark, and Lynn W. Oliphant. "The diet of Peregrine Falcons in Rankin Inlet, Northwest Territories: an unusually high proportion of mammalian prey." The Condor 93.1 (1991): 193–197.
^abcRatcliffe, Derek. The peregrine falcon. A&C Black, 2010.
^abPagel, J. E., & Schmitt, N. J. (2013). American Marten Remains Within Peregrine Falcon Prey Sample in Yellowstone National Park. Journal of Raptor Research, 47(4), 419–420.
^Gunness, Jerome (2012)."Falco peregrinus (Peregrine Falcon)"(PDF).The Online Guide to the Animals of Trinidad and Tobago. University of the West Indies.
^Treleaven, R.B. (1980). "High and low intensity hunting in raptors".Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie.54 (4):339–345.doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1980.tb01250.x.
^Collins, Philip; Green, Jonathan A.; Dodd, Stephen; Shaw, Peter J.A.; Halsey, Lewis G. (March 2014). "Predation of Black-legged Kittiwake Chicks Rissa tridactyla by a Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus: Insights from Time-lapse Cameras".The Wilson Journal of Ornithology.126 (1):158–161.doi:10.1676/13-141.1.S2CID85850583.
^Kaufman, Kenn (13 November 2014)."Peregrine Falcon".Audubon. National Audubon Society. Retrieved12 June 2019.
^Walton, B.J.; Thelander, C.G. (1988). "Peregrine falcon management efforts in California, Oregon, Washington, and Nevada".Peregrine falcon populations: their management and recovery. Boise, Idaho: The Peregrine Fund. pp. 587–598.
^abAitken, G. (2004).A New Approach to Conservation. Ashgate Publishing. p. 126.ISBN978-0-7546-3283-2.
^Henny, Charles; Nelson, Morlan W. (1981). "Decline and Present Status of Breeding Peregrine Falcons in Oregon".The Murrelet.62 (2):43–53.doi:10.2307/3534174.JSTOR3534174.The records of Richard M. Bond and William E. Griffee, and the recollections of Larry L. Schramm and Merlin A. McColm were critical in putting the Peregrine back off the endangered list
^Cade, T.J.; Burnham, W. (2003).Return of the Peregrine: A North American saga of tenacity and teamwork. The Peregrine Fund.ISBN978-0961983932.
^The Peregrine by J. A. Baker, Introduction by Robert Macfarlane, New York Review Books 2005ISBN9781590171332
^The Peregrine, The Hill of Summer & Diaries; The Complete Works of J. A. Baker, Introduction by Mark Cocker & Edited by John Fanshawe, Collins 2015ISBN978-0008138318
^Landmarks, Robert Macfarlane, Hamish Hamilton, London, 2015ISBN978-0-241-14653-8, chapter 5
^Birds Britannica, Mark Cocker & Richard Mabey. London: Chatto & Windus, 2005,ISBN0 701 16907 9, page 150
^"Starman: ABC-TV series shoots episode in Santa Cruz".Santa Cruz Sentinel. 24 October 1986. p. 74. Retrieved25 April 2021.This episode focuses on a falcon, which has brought the crew to Santa Cruz in the first place. They filmed Monday at UCSC's peregrine falcon project, followed by two more days at Henry Cowell [Redwoods State Park]. (Note: the episode was titled "The Falcon" during filming and retitled "Peregrine" before broadcast. An end credit gives thanks to Brian Walton and the Peregrine Fund Facility at UCSC.)
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