| People of the Book | |
| Arabic | أهل الكتاب |
|---|---|
| Romanization | ahl al-kitāb |
| Literal meaning | "People of the Book" |
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People of the Book, orAhl al-Kitāb (Arabic:أهل الكتاب), is a classification inIslam for the adherents of those religions that are regarded byMuslims as having received a divine revelation fromGod, generally in the form of aholy scripture. The classification chiefly refers to pre-IslamicAbrahamic religions.[1] In theQuran, they are identified as theJews, theChristians, theSabians, and—according to some interpretations—theZoroastrians.[2] Beginning in the 8th century, this recognition was extended to other groups, such as theSamaritans (who are closely related to the Jews),[3] and, controversially,Hindus,Buddhists,Jains, andSikhs, among others.[4] In most applications, "People of the Book" is simply used by Muslims to refer to the followers ofJudaism andChristianity, with which Islam shares many values, guidelines, and principles.
Historically, in countries and regions followingIslamic law, the religious communities that Muslims recognized as People of the Book were subject to a legal status known asdhimmi, meaning that they had the option to pay a special head tax calledjizya in exchange for being granted the privilege to practice their faith and govern their community according to the rules and norms of their own religion.[3]Jizya was levied on all mentally and physically capable adult males from these recognized non-Muslim communities. Practitioners of non-recognized religions were not always granted this privilege, although many laterIslamic states, particularly those in theIndian subcontinent, amended their laws to extend the application ofdhimmi status beyond the originally designated Jewish and Christian communities.
In the Quran, the term is used in a variety of contexts, from religious polemics to passages emphasizing the community of faith among those who possess scriptures espousingmonotheism, as opposed topolytheism or any other form of belief.[5]
The designation of People of the Book is also relevant toIslamic marriages: a Muslim man is only permitted to marry a non-Muslim woman if she is Jewish or Christian, and he must additionally ensure that any children produced with his Jewish or Christian wife/wives are raised in the Muslim faith. Muslim women are not permitted to marry non-Muslim men, even if they are Jewish or Christian.[6] In the case of a Muslim–Christian marriage, which is to be contracted only after permission from the Christian party, theAshtiname of Muhammad dictates that the Muslim husband is not allowed to prevent his Christian wife fromattending church for prayer and worship.[7][8]
More recently, the term has been reappropriated by some Jews and Christians as a means of self-identification vis-à-vis Muslims.[9]
When used in conjunction with a person, the termahl identifies the members of that person's household, including their fellow tribesmen, relatives and all those who share a family background with them. However, it may also be used with place names to refer to people living in a certain locality (e.g.,ahl al-Madīna in Quran 9:101, 'the people ofMedina'), or with more abstract nouns, as inahl madhhab, 'the people of a certainmadhhab or school of thought'.[10]
The wordkitāb, meaning 'writing' or 'book', occurs very often in the Quran, generally in the sense of a divine rather than a human activity, which consists in writing down and recording everything that is created. More than just referring to a 'book', it conveys meanings of divine knowledge, divine authority, and divine revelation.[11]
The termahl al-kitāb, then, refers to those who have been given access to such knowledge and revelation:[11] they are the people to whom God has 'sent down' (seetanzīl) his wisdom by means of aprophet, as an act ofdivine grace.[10] However, the revelations given to the People of the Book, taking the form of theTorah (al-Tawrāt), thePsalms (al-Zabūr), and theGospel (al-Injīl),[5] were all partial, and it is precisely by already being familiar with the books (kutub) previously sent down that the People of the Book were expected to be able to recognize Muhammad as a prophet, and the Quran as the final and most complete revelation.[11]
Several verses in the Quran are commonly understood as identifying theJews, theChristians, and theSabians as People of the Book. Thus for exampleSūrat al-Māʾida 5:68–69, which mentions these groups along with the Muslims ("the believers") as being safe from fear and grief:[12]
[68] Say, ˹O Prophet,˺ “O People of the Book! You have nothing to stand on unless you observe the Torah, the Gospel, and what has been revealed to you from your Lord.” And your Lord’s revelation to you ˹O Prophet˺ will only cause many of them to increase in wickedness and disbelief. So do not grieve for the people who disbelieve. [69] Indeed, the believers, Jews, Sabians and Christians—whoever ˹truly˺ believes in Allah and the Last Day and does good, there will be no fear for them, nor will they grieve.[13]
Sūrat al-Baqara 2:62 is similar to this,[14] but there is also a verse (Sūrat al-Ḥajj 22:17) which lists the same groups in another context, that of how God will judge them on theDay of Resurrection, but now adding two more groups to the list:[15]
Indeed, the believers, Jews, Sabians, Christians, Magi, and the polytheists—Allah will judge between them ˹all˺ on Judgment Day. Surely Allah is a Witness over all things.[16]
The last named group, "the polytheists" (themushrikūn,lit. 'those who associate'), are the opposite of the first named, "the believers" (the Muslims). What is less clear, however, is the status of the groups mentioned in between, who now also include the "Magi" (al-majūs), that is to say, theZoroastrians (who are named only once in the Quran, in this verse). This was a matter of dispute among medieval Muslim scholars, who questioned whether the Zoroastrians had a clear prophet and scripture, as well as whether their doctrines on the nature of God and creation were in accordance with those of Islam and the other religions recognized as having received a revelation.[15] Ultimately though, most Islamic jurists granted the Zoroastrians partial status as a People of the Book,[15] while still disagreeing on the extent to which legal privileges such as intermarriage with Muslims should be allowed.[17]
The Quran emphasizes the community of faith between possessors of monotheistic scriptures, and occasionally pays tribute to the religious and moral virtues of communities that have received earlier revelations, calling on Muhammad to ask them for information.[5] More often, reflecting the refusal of Jews and Christians in Muhammad's environment to accept his message, the Quran stresses their inability to comprehend the message they possess but do not put into practice and to appreciate that Muhammad's teaching fulfills that message.[5]
The People of the Book are mentioned several times in the 98th chapter of the Quran,Sūrat al-Bayyina ('The Clear Proof'):
[1] The disbelievers from the People of the Book and the polytheists were not going to desist from disbelief until the clear proof came to them: [2] a messenger from Allah, reciting scrolls of utmost purity, [3] containing upright commandments. [4] It was not until this clear proof came to the People of the Book that they became divided about his prophethood— [5] even though they were only commanded to worship Allah alone with sincere devotion to Him in all uprightness, establish prayer, and pay alms-tax. That is the upright Way. [6] Indeed, those who disbelieve from the People of the Book and the polytheists will be in the Fire of Hell, to stay there forever. They are the worst of all beings. [7] Indeed, those who believe and do good—they are the best of all beings. [8] Their reward with their Lord will be Gardens of Eternity, under which rivers flow, to stay there for ever and ever. Allah is pleased with them and they are pleased with Him. This is only for those in awe of their Lord.[18]
According toIslamic studies scholarYvonne Haddad, this short chapter condemns all those who reject the 'clear proof' (bayyina) of the Prophet to the eternal fire of hell, whether they are People of the Book or disbelievers (kuffār).[19]
The People of the Book are also referenced in thejizya verse (Q9:29),[5] which has receivedvaried interpretations.
The Quran permits marriage between Muslim men and women who are People of the Book (Jews and Christians).[7]
TheAshtiname of Muhammad, a treaty purportedly made betweenMuhammad and theChristians ofSaint Catherine's Monastery, stated that if a Muslim man wished to marry a Christian woman, marriage could only occur with her consent and she must be permitted to continueattending church to pray and worship.[8] The Ashtiname states that Christians cannot be forced to fight in wars and that Muslims should fight on their behalf; it also states that Christian churches are to be respected and forbids stealing from them.[8] The Ashtiname forbids Muslims to remove Christians from their jobs, including those who serve as judges or monks.[8] Muslims are bound until theLast Judgment to adhere to the treaty or "he would spoil God's covenant and disobey His Prophet."[8] The policy of the Ottoman Sultans abided by the Ashtiname.[8]
During the second caliphUmar's reign (r. 634–642), theChristian community ofNajran and theJewish community ofKhaybar were deported to the newly conquered regions ofSyria andIraq.[20] Umar set aside the Christian ban on the Jews and allowed them to pray and reside inJerusalem.[21] Umar signed apact with the Christians of Jerusalem, which granted them safety in the region.[22] He also awarded the status of the People of the Book to the Zoroastrians, although some practices contrary to Islam were prohibited.[23]
At the beginning of theMuslim conquest of Mesopotamia inc. 640, the leader of theMandaeans (one of the religious groups who historically claimed to be theSabians mentioned in the Quran),Anush bar Danqa, is said to have traveled toBaghdad in order to appear before the Muslim authorities, showing them a copy of theGinza Rabba (the Mandaean holy book), and proclaiming the chief Mandaean prophet to beJohn the Baptist (known toMuslims asYahya ibn Zakariyya). Consequently, the Muslim authorities afforded them the status of People of the Book.[24] However, this account is likely apocryphal, and if it took place at all, it must have occurred after the founding of Baghdad in 762.[25] The earliest source to unambiguously apply the term 'Sabian' to the Mandaeans wasal-Hasan ibn Bahlul (fl. 950–1000) citing the Abbasid vizierAbu Ali Muhammad ibn Muqla (c. 885–940).[26] However, it is not clear whether the Mandaeans of this period already identified themselves as Sabians or whether the claim originated with Ibn Muqla.[27]
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When theUmayyad generalMuhammad ibn Qasim (c. 694–715) conqueredBrahmanabad, he is said to have grantedHindus,Buddhists, andJains the status of People of the Book.[28][better source needed]
Islamic scholars differ on whetherHindus are People of the Book.[29] TheIslamic conquest of India necessitated the definition be revised, as most India's inhabitants were followers of theIndian religions. Many of the Muslim clergy of India considered Hindus as people of the book,[29] and from Muhammad bin Qasim in the Umayyad era to the Mughal rulerAurangzeb in the 17th century, Muslim rulers were willing to consider Hindus as People of the Book.[30]
Dhimmi is a historical[31] term referring to the status accorded to People of the Book living in anIslamic state[failed verification].[31] The word literally means "protected person."[32] According to scholars, dhimmis had their rights fully protected in their communities, but as citizens in the Islamic state, had certain restrictions,[33] and it was obligatory for them to pay thejizya tax, which complemented thezakat, or alms, paid by the Muslim subjects.[34] Dhimmis were excluded from specific duties assigned to Muslims, and did not enjoy certain political rights reserved for Muslims, but were otherwise equal under the laws of property, contract, and obligation.[35][36][37]
Undersharia, the dhimmi communities were usually subjected to their own special laws, rather than some of the laws which were applicable only to the Muslim community. For example, theJewish community in Medina was allowed to have its ownHalakhic courts,[38] and theOttomanmillet system allowed its various dhimmi communities to rule themselves under separate legal courts. These courts did not cover cases that involved religious groups outside of their own community, or capital offences. Dhimmi communities were also allowed to engage in certain practices that were usually forbidden for the Muslim community, such as theconsumption of alcohol and pork.[39][40][41]
Historically, dhimmi status was originally applied toJews,Christians, andSabians. This status later also came to be applied toZoroastrians,Hindus,Jains andBuddhists.[42][43][44] Moderate Muslims generally reject the dhimma system as inappropriate for the age of nation-states and democracies.[45]
InJudaism, the term "People of the Book" (Hebrew: עם הספר,Am HaSefer)[46] has beenreappropriated as a term to designate theJewish people, in reference to theTorah or to the entireHebrew Bible.[47] Members of someChristian denominations have also embraced the term "People of the Book" in reference to themselves, foremost among them thePuritans[48] as well as theSeventh-day Adventist Church[49][better source needed] and theBaptists.[50][better source needed]
The Quran speaks favourably of the people of the Book. For example, Surah 3, verse 199, carries a universal message of goodwill and hope to all those who believe, the people of the Book irrespective of their religious label—Christian, Jew or Muslim. Muslims can marry with the people of the Book,
Dhimmis are non-Muslims who live within Islamdom and have a regulated and protected status. ... In the modern period, this term has generally has occasionally been resuscitated, but it is generally obsolete.
A Dhimmi is a non-Muslim subject of a state governed in accordance to sharia law. The term connotes an obligation of the state to protect the individual, including the individual's life, property, and freedom of religion and worship, and required loyalty to the empire, and a poll tax known as the jizya, which complemented the Islamic tax paid by the Muslim subjects, called Zakat.
According to the dhimma status system, non-Muslims must pay a poll tax in return for Muslim protection and the privilege of living in Muslim territory. Per this system, non-Muslims are exempt from military service, but they are excluded from occupying high positions that involve dealing with high state interests, like being the president or prime minister of the country. In Islamic history, non-Muslims did occupy high positions, especially in matters that related to fiscal policies or tax collection.
The conquerorMuhammad Ibn Al Qasem gave both Hindus and Buddhists the same status as the Christians, Jews and Sabaeans the Middle East. They were all "dhimmi" ('protected people')
