Penang Hokkien (Chinese:庇能福建話;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Pī-né͘ng Hok-kiàn-ōa;Tâi-lô:Pī-néeng Hok-kiàn-uā;IPA:/pi˨˩nɛŋ˦˥hɔk̚˦kiɛn˥˧ua˨˩/) is a local variant ofHokkien spoken inPenang,Malaysia. It is spokennatively by 63.9% ofPenang's Chinese community,^[5] and also by somePenangite Indians andPenangite Malays.^[6]

It was once thelingua franca among the majorityChinese population inPenang,Kedah,Perlis and northernPerak. However, since the 1980s, many younger speakers haveshifted towardsMalaysian Mandarin under the Speak Mandarin Campaign inChinese-medium schools in Malaysia, even though Mandarin was not previously spoken in these regions.^{[7][8][9][6][10][11]}Mandarin has been adopted as the onlylanguage of instruction in Chinese schools and, from the 1980s to mid-2010s, these schools penalised students and teachers for using non-Mandarinvarieties of Chinese.^[12] A 2021 study found that Penang Hokkien was a 'threatened' language in theExpanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale, due to the encroachment of Mandarin.^[13]

Penang Hokkien is a subdialect ofZhangzhou (漳州;Tsiang-tsiu) Hokkien, with extensive use ofMalay andEnglishloanwords. Compared to dialects inFujian (福建;Hok-kiàn)province, it most closely resembles the variety spoken in the district ofHaicang (海滄;Hái-tshng) inLonghai (龍海;Liông-hái)county and in the districts ofJiaomei (角美;Kak-bí) and Xinglin (杏林;Hēng-lîm) in neighbouringXiamen (廈門;Ēe-muî)prefecture.^{[citation needed]} InSoutheast Asia, similar dialects are spoken in the states borderingPenang (Kedah,Perlis and northernPerak), as well as inMedan andNorth Sumatra,Indonesia. It is markedly distinct fromSouthern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien,Singaporean Hokkien andTaiwanese Hokkien.

Penang Hokkien is largely a spoken language, however it can be written inChinese characters (唐人字;Tn̂g-lâng-jī), orromanised in theLatin script (紅毛字;Âng-môo-jī). Penang Hokkien has a growing body of written, particularly romanised material, thanks largely in part to its increasing online presence on social media. Many topics focus on the language itself such as dictionaries and learning materials. This is linked to efforts to preserve, revitalise and promote the language as part of Penang's cultural heritage, due to increasing awareness of the loss of Penang Hokkien usage among younger generations in favour ofMandarin and English. The standard romanisation systems commonly used in these materials are based onTâi-lô andPe̍͘h-ōa-jī, with varying modifications to suit Penang Hokkien phonology.

The Hokkien Language Association of Penang (Persatuan Bahasa Hokkien Pulau Pinang; 庇能福建話協會) is one such organisation which promotes the language's usage and revitalisation. Through theirSpeak Hokkien Campaign they promote a Tâi-lô based system modified to suit the phonology of Penang Hokkien and its loanwords. This system is used throughout this article and its features are detailed below.

The Speak Hokkien Campaign also promotes the use oftraditional Chinese characters derived from recommended character lists forwritten Hokkien published byTaiwan's Ministry of Education.

Most native-speakers are not aware of these standardised systems and resort to ad hoc methods of romanisation based onEnglish,Malay andPinyin spelling rules. These methods are in common use for many proper names and food items, e.g.Char Kway Teow (炒粿條;tshá-kúe-tiâu). These spellings are often inconsistent and highly variable with several alternate spellings being well established, e.g.Char Koay Teow. These methods, which are more intuitive to the average native-speaker, are the basis of non-standard romanisation systems used in some written material.

• Unlike other dialects of Hokkien,alveolaraffricates andfricatives remain the same and do not undergo palatalisation to becomealveolo-palatal before /i/, e.g. 時 [si] instead of [ɕi].
• Words that begin with a null initial, i.e. begin with a vowel without a preceding consonant may feature an initial glottal stop /ʔ/, this is not indicated in writing.
• The consonants⟨w⟩ and⟨y⟩ are only used in the spelling of loanwords. They may be analysed in terms of native Hokkien phonology as beginning with a null initial and may instead be spelled with⟨u⟩ and⟨i⟩ respectively, e.g. 我wá/uá and 捎央sa-yang/sa-iang.
• The consonants⟨d⟩,⟨f⟩,⟨sh⟩ and⟨r⟩ are only used in loanwords.

• In the Tâi-lô system for Penang Hokkien,nasal vowels are indicated using final⟨-nn⟩, while Pe̍͘h-ōa-jī uses superscript⟨◌ⁿ⟩. Vowel nasalisation occurs in words that have nasal initials (⟨m-⟩,⟨n-⟩,⟨ng-⟩), however, this is not explicitly indicated in writing with either⟨-nn⟩ or⟨◌ⁿ⟩, e.g. 卵nūi (/nuĩ/) instead ofnūinn/nūiⁿ.
  For most speakers who are not familiar with Tâi-lô or Pe̍͘h-ōa-jī, nasalisation is commonly indicated by putting an⟨n⟩ after the initial consonant of a word. This is commonly seen for the popular Penang delicacyTau Sar Pneah (豆沙餅;tāu-sa-piánn). In other instances, nasalisation may not be indicated at all, such as inPopiah (薄餅;po̍h-piánn), or as in the common last nameOoi (黃;Uînn).
• The final⟨ioo⟩ is only written in conjunction with words that have an initial⟨n-⟩, e.g. 娘niôo. In this instance it is pronounced /iɔ̃/ and is a variant of⟨ionn⟩, with nasalisation instead indicated by the nasal initial.
• The rime⟨ionn⟩ is a variant pronunciation of⟨iaunn⟩. The two may be used interchangeably in Penang Hokkien, e.g. 張tiaunn/tionn, 羊iâunn/iônn.
• When⟨ia⟩ is followed by final⟨-n⟩ or⟨-t⟩, it is pronounced [iɛ], with⟨ian⟩ and⟨iat⟩ being pronounced as [iɛn] and [iɛt̚] respectively.
  In speech, these sounds are often reduced to [ɛn] and [ɛt̚], e.g. 免mián/mén.
• The diphthong /ua/ may be spelled⟨wa⟩ in loanwords, e.g. 我wá/uá.
• The diphthong /ia/ may be spelled⟨ya⟩ in loanwords, e.g.sa-yang/sa-iang 捎央.
• There are clear distinction between /e/ and /ɛ/ vowel in Penang Hokkien. For example, the term 家 (home) is pronounced as /kɛ/ (Tâi-lô: ⟨kee⟩, Pe̍͘h-ōa-jī: ⟨ke͘⟩), while 雞 (chicken) is pronounced as /ke/, which is transcribed as ⟨ke⟩ in both Tâi-lô and Pe̍͘h-ōa-jī. However, a lot of Penang Hokkien Tâi-lô or Pe̍͘h-ōa-jī users were prone to ignore the difference. Reasons being the absence of formal letter on /ɛ/ from theorthodox Pe̍h-ōe-jī which is based on Amoy accent, and there are lack of support from most mainstream POJ input methods for the letter ⟨e͘⟩. Despite the existence of formal notation of /ɛ/ in Tâi-lô as ⟨ee⟩, some Tâi-lô users were seems to neglect it too, possibly due to the influence from Taiwanese online resources which don't include letter /ee/ and not aware of it.

• * Used in loanwords, variants and onomatopoeia

In Penang Hokkien, the twoDeparting tones (3rd & 7th) are virtually identical, and may not be distinguished except in theirsandhi forms. Most native speakers of Penang Hokkien are therefore only aware of four tones in unchecked syllables (high, low, rising, high falling), and twoEntering tones (high and low) in checked syllables. In most systems of romanisation, this is accounted as seven tones altogether. The tones are:

The names of the tones no longer bear any relation to the tone contours. The (upper)Rising (2nd) tone has two variants in Penang Hokkien, a high falling tone [˥˧] (53) and a high rising tone [˦˦˥] (445). The high falling tone [˥˧] (53) is more common among the older generations while in the younger generations there has been a shift towards the use of the high rising tone [˦˦˥] (445). When the 3rd tone is sandhied to the 2nd tone, the high falling variant [˥˧] (53) is used, however some speakers may sandhi the 3rd tone to the 1st tone [˦] (44).^[14] As in Amoy and Zhangzhou, there is no lowerRising (6th) tone.

Penang Hokkien, like other Hokkien dialects albeit less extensive,^[14] featurestone sandhi (變調;piàn-tiāu), a process where the tone of a character changes if it is followed by another character as part of a multisyllabic compound. When a character is read in isolation as a monosyllabic word, or as the final character in a multisyllabic compound, it is pronounced with its "original tone" (本調;pún-tiāu). Within a multisyllabic compound, every character, except for the one in the final position undergoes tone sandhi. For example, the word 牛gû in isolation is pronounced with an ascending tone, [˨˧] (23), but when it combines with a following syllable, as in 牛肉gû-bah, it undergoes tone sandhi and is pronounced with a low tone, [˨˩] (21). Meanwhile 肉bah in the final position is pronounced with its original tone [ʔ˧] (3). This process occurs regardless of the length of the compound, for example, in 牛肉粿條湯gû-bah-kué-tiâu-thng, the first 4 characters are pronounced with their sandhied tone, while only the final character 湯thng, is pronounced with its original tone.

In both Tâi-lô and Pe̍͘h-ōa-jī based romanisation systems, compounds are indicated with the use of hyphens linking the individual syllables. Single hyphens (-) are most often used and linked syllables undergo tone sandhi as described above. Double hyphens (--) are used in instances where the preceding syllable does not undergo tone sandhi. Tone marks always show the original tone, and do not change to indicate the sandhied tone in a compound.

The general tone sandhi rules for Penang Hokkien are as follows:

• 5th becomes 7th
• 7th becomes 3rd
• 3rd becomes 2nd (for some speakers becomes 1st)
• 2nd becomes 1st
• 1st becomes 7th

Checked syllables (-p, -t, -k, -h):

• 4th becomes 8th
• 8th becomes 4th

Although the two departing tones (3rd & 7th) are virtually identical in Penang Hokkien, in their sandhi forms they become [˥˧] (53) and [˨˩] (21) and are thus easily distinguishable.

There is a reasonably reliable correspondence between Hokkien and Mandarin tones:

• UpperLevel: Hokkien 1st tone = Mandarin 1st tone, e.g. 雞ke/jī.
• LowerLevel: Hokkien 5th tone = Mandarin 2nd tone, e.g. 龍lêng/lóng.
• Rising: Hokkien 2nd tone = Mandarin 3rd tone, e.g. 馬bée/mǎ.
• Departing: Hokkien 3rd/7th tones = Mandarin 4th tone, e.g. 兔thòo/tù, 象tshiōnn/xiàng.

Words withEntering tones all end with⟨-p⟩,⟨-t⟩,⟨-k⟩ or⟨-h⟩ (glottal stop). As Mandarin no longer has anyEntering tones, there is no simple corresponding relationship for the Hokkien 4th and 8th tones, e.g. 國kok/guó, but 發huat/fā. The tone in Mandarin often depends on what the initial consonant of the syllable is (see the article onEntering tones for details).

Hokkien has not been taught in schools in Penang since the establishment of theRepublic of China in 1911, when Mandarin was made the Chinese national language. As such, few if any people have received any formal instruction in Hokkien, and it is not used for literary purposes. However, as in other variants of Min Nan, most words have bothliterary and colloquial pronunciations. Literary variants are generally eschewed in favour of colloquial pronunciations, e.g. 大學tuā-o̍h instead oftāi-ha̍k, though literary pronunciations still appear in limited circumstances, e.g.:

• in given names (but generally not surnames), e.g. 安an rather thanuann, 玉gio̍k rather thange̍k, 月gua̍t rather thangue̍h, 明bêng rather thanmêe
• in a few surnames, e.g. 葉ia̍p rather thanhio̍h
• in other proper names, e.g. 龍山堂Liông-san-tông rather thanLêng-suann-tn̂g
• in certain set phrases, e.g. 差不多tsha-put-to rather thantshee-m̄-to, 見笑kiàn-siàu rather thankìnn-tshiò
• in certain names of plants, herbs, and spices, e.g. 木瓜bo̍k-kua rather thanba̍k-kua, 五香ngóo-hiong rather thangōo-hiong
• in names of certain professions, eg. 學生ha̍k-seng instead ofo̍h-senn, 醫生i-seng rather thani-senn, and 老君ló-kun instead oflāu-kun. A notable exception is 先生sin-senn

Unlike in China, Taiwan, and the Philippines, the literary pronunciations of numbers higher than two are not used when giving telephone numbers, etc.; e.g. 二五四jī-gōo-sì instead ofjī-ngóo-sù.

Penang Hokkien has differences in pronunciation and vocabulary when compared to other varieties of Hokkien. Although Penang Hokkien has many similarities to Zhangzhou Hokkien from which it is derived, it also has its own unique differences.

• The use of Zhangzhou pronunciations such as 糜muâi (Amoy:bê), 先生sin-senn (Amoy:sian-sinn), etc.;
• The use of Zhangzhou expressions such as 調羹thâu-kiong (Amoy: 湯匙thng-sî);
• The adoption of pronunciations fromTeochew: e.g. 我wá/uá (Zhangzhou:guá), 糜môi (Zhangzhou:muâi);
• The adoption of Amoy and Quanzhou pronunciations like 歹勢pháinn-sè (Zhangzhou:bái/pháinn-sì), 百pah (Zhangzhou:peeh), etc.

General pronunciation differences can be shown as below:

Due to Penang's linguistic and ethnic diversity, Penang Hokkien is in close contact with many other languages and dialects which are drawn on heavily for loanwords.^[15] These include Malay, Teochew,Cantonese and English.

Like other dialects inMalaysia andSingapore,Penang Hokkien borrows heavily fromMalay, but sometimes to a greater extent than other Hokkien dialects, e.g.:

There are also many Hokkien words which have been borrowed into Malay, sometimes with slightly different meanings, e.g.:

There are words in Penang Hokkien that originated from other varieties of Chinese spoken in and around Malaysia. e.g.:

Penang Hokkien has also borrowed some words from English, some of which may have been borrowed via Malay. Often, these words tend to be more technical and less well embedded than the Malay words, e.g. brake, park, pipe, pump, etc. However some are used in common everyday language, e.g.:

Penang Hokkien also contains words which are thought to come fromThai, e.g.:

In recent years, a number of movies that incorporate the use of Penang Hokkien have been filmed, as part of wider efforts to preserve the language's relevance.^[16] Among the more recent movies areThe Journey, which became the highest-grossing Malaysian film in 2014, andYou Mean the World to Me, the first movie to be filmed entirely in Penang Hokkien.

Another significant contribution to the entertainment landscape is the Penang Hokkien Podcast. Founded in 2005 by John Ong, a Penangite residing inKansas City, US - this podcast stands as the pioneering platform dedicated entirely to Penang-style Hokkien. Thepodcast offers a fun and engaging show for Penangites and individuals who understand the language. With its inception predating the recent wave of Penang Hokkien-focused films, the podcast provides a unique space for lighthearted and casual conversations with no topic restrictions. Listeners can enjoy funny and relatable discussions reminiscent of sharing secrets and stories with close friends.

As an initiative in the realm of Penang Hokkien entertainment, the Penang Hokkien Podcast complements the efforts to preserve the language's relevance. It serves as an audio medium that celebrates the culture, and humour associated with Penang Hokkien, offering a valuable resource for those seeking animmersive experience.

An earlier and unexpected instance of Penang Hokkien in global entertainment can be traced back to the British sitcomMind Your Language (1977–79). Malaysian-born actressPik-Sen Lim, a native of Penang, portrayed Chung Su-Lee, a Chinese national. While her character would have been expected to speakMandarin, Lim naturally spoke Penang Hokkien, the language she grew up identifying as "Chinese". During the late 1970s, Mandarin had not yet gained global prominence, and the distinction went unnoticed by most viewers. This unintentional but authentic use of Penang Hokkien is likely the earliest recorded instance of the language being clearly spoken and heard on video, adding a unique and unplanned moment of representation for the language in international media. This occurrence underscores how Penang Hokkien forms a deep part of theidentity of its speakers, even when representing different cultural contexts.

TheSpeak Hokkien Campaign is a social movement aimed at the revitalisation and promotion of the Hokkien language, with a particular focus on preserving its use among Hokkien-speaking communities worldwide. Launched online on 12 Jul 2015, the campaign began as a grassroots initiative onFacebook by Hokkien speakers fromPenang,Malaysia, and has since grown into an active platform for spreading awareness and fostering pride in the language.

While its roots lie in Penang Hokkien, the campaign also shares information about other variants of Hokkien spoken in regions such asSingapore, thePhilippines,Indonesia,Taiwan, and beyond, emphasising the language’s diversity and cultural richness.

The campaign contrasts with Singapore’s government-ledSpeak Mandarin Campaign, advocating instead for the preservation and use of Hokkien. The Facebook page is operated by members of the Persatuan Bahasa Hokkien Pulau Pinang (Hokkien Language Association of Penang), a non-governmental organisation officially established in 2014 to safeguard the linguistic and cultural heritage of Penang Hokkien. Through its online presence, the Speak Hokkien Campaign plays a crucial role in uniting Hokkien-speaking communities globally and inspiring a renewed appreciation for the language.

• Hoklo people
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• Southern Malaysia Hokkien
• Singaporean Hokkien
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• Lan-nang-oe (Philippine Hokkien)
• Place and street names of Penang
• Written Hokkien
• Speak Hokkien Campaign
• Penang Hokkien Podcast

• Douglas, Carstairs (1899) [1873].Chinese-English Dictionary of the Vernacular or Spoken Language of Amoy, with the Principal Variations of the Chang-chew and Chin-chew Dialects (2nd corrected ed.). London: Publishing Office of the Presbyterian Church of England.ISBN 1-86210-068-3., bound withBarclay, Thomas (1923).Supplement to Dictionary of the Vernacular or Spoken Language of Amoy. Shanghai: Commercial Press.
• de Gijzel, Luc (2009).English-Penang Hokkien Pocket Dictionary. George Town, Penang: Areca Books.ISBN 978-983-44646-0-8.
• learn Penang Hokkien in hokkien poj
• Memes and Movie quotes in Penang Hokkien

• Chinese-Malaysian culture
• Languages of Malaysia
• Hokkien-language dialects
• Penang

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