Pedro De Valdivia | |
|---|---|
 Posthumous portrait byFederico de Madrazo | |
| 1st and 3rdRoyal Governor of Chile | |
| In office June 10, 1540 – December 1547 | |
| Monarch | Charles I of Spain |
| Preceded by | Office established |
| Succeeded by | Francisco de Villagra |
| In office July 20, 1549 – December 25, 1553 | |
| Monarch | Charles I of Spain |
| Prime Minister | Pedro de la Gasca |
| Preceded by | Francisco de Villagra |
| Succeeded by | Francisco de Villagra |
| 2ndAdelantado ofTerra Australis | |
| In office August 2, 1540 – December 25, 1553 | |
| Monarch | Charles I of Spain |
| Preceded by | Pedro Sancho de la Hoz |
| Succeeded by | Jerónimo de Alderete |
| Personal details | |
| Born | April 17, 1497 |
| Died | December 25, 1553 (aged 56) nearFort Tucapel,Chile |
| Spouse | Marina Ortíz de Gaete |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance |  Spain |
| Years of service | 1520–1553 |
| Rank | Captain General |
| Battles/wars | |
Pedro Gutiérrez de Valdivia or Valdiva (Spanish pronunciation:[ˈpeðɾoðeβalˈdiβja]; April 17, 1497 – December 25, 1553[1]) was a Spanishconquistador and the first Governor ofColonial Chile. After having served with theSpanish army inItaly andFlanders, he was sent toSouth America in 1535, where he served as a soldier under thePizarro brothers inPeru, gradually rising in power.
In 1540, Valdivia led an expedition of 150 Spaniards and 1,000Peruvian Indians into Chile, where he defeated a large force of indigenous warriors and foundedSantiago in 1541. He extended Spanish rule south to theBiobío River in 1546, fought again in Peru (1546–1548), and returned to Chile as Royal Governor in 1549. In 1550, he expanded Spanish rule further south intoAraucanía, where he founded the city ofConcepción[2] and the eponymous city ofValdivia. He was captured and killed byMapuche Indians during theArauco War in 1553.
Pedro de Valdivia is believed to have been born inVillanueva de la Serena[3] (some sayCastuera) inExtremadura,[4]Spain, around 1500 (some sources put his date of birth as early as 1497 or as late as 1505) to an impoverishedhidalgo family. In 1520 a civil war broke out in Castile, theRevolt of the Comuneros, and Valdivia joined the royalist army of KingCharles I. He later fought inFlanders in 1521 and Italy between 1522 and 1527, participating in theBattle of Pavia as part of the troops of theMarquis of Pescara. In May 1527, Valdivia was involved in thesack of Rome as a member of Charles I's mutinous mercenary army.
Valdivia sailed with a Spanish military force toSouth America in 1535. He first arrived in present-dayVenezuela and stayed there for one year.[5]During his time there, he likely fought against theCarib Indians, who were known for being warlike.
Valdivia traveled south toPeru in 1537. During this time, there was a civil war between the Spanish colonists in Peru, with one faction led byFrancisco Pizarro and the other faction led byDiego de Almagro. Valdivia sided with Pizarro's faction and helped them defeat Almagro at theBattle of Las Salinas in 1538.[6]: 264 Afterwards, Valdivia accompaniedHernando andGonzalo Pizarro on an expedition to conquer High Peru (later known asBolivia). As a reward for helping thePizarro brothers, Valdivia was given anencomienda property with a silver mine inPotosí. This large silver mine that Valdivia owned made him a very rich man.[7]
Valdivia had marriedMarina Ortíz de Gaete in Spain.[8] In Peru he became attached toInés de Suárez, a Spanish widow who accompanied him to Chile as his mistress.
After the failure of the expedition of Diego de Almagro in 1536, the lands to the south of Peru (then known asNueva Toledo, extending from the 14° — close to modern dayPisco, Peru — to the 25° latitude — close toTaltal, Chile) had remained unexplored. Valdivia asked GovernorFrancisco Pizarro for permission to conquer and govern that territory. He got his permission but was appointed as Lieutenant Governor, rather than Governor as he had wanted.
The expedition was fraught with problems from the beginning. Valdivia had to sell the lands and the mine that had been assigned to him in order to finance the expedition. A shortage of soldiers and adventurers was also problematic; the men were not interested in conquering what they believed were extremely poor lands. While Valdivia was preparing the expedition,Pedro Sánchez de la Hoz arrived from Spain with a royal grant for the same territory. To avoid difficulties, Pizarro advised the two competitors to join their interests, and on December 28, 1539, they signed a contract of partnership.
Valdivia's expedition finally leftCuzco, Peru in January 1540, with Pizarro's permission[9] andPedro Sancho de Hoz as partner. They carried a plethora of seeds for planting, a herd of pigs, and some brood mares. The expedition was composed of 1,000 PeruvianIndian auxiliaries, 150 Spaniards, and a few African slaves. A Spanish woman was among the travelers,Inés de Suárez, Valdivia's mistress. En route more Spaniards joined the expedition, attracted by Valdivia's fame as a brilliant leader.
Valdivia resolved to avoid the road over theAndes, which had proved fatal to Almagro's army, and set out resolutely through theAtacama Desert. On the way, Sancho de Hoz, seeking sole leadership, tried to murder Valdivia but failed. He was pardoned, but from then on had to accept subordinate status. The natives of the region were not pleased by the return of the Spaniards due to the maltreatment they had suffered under Almagro. With many promises, Valdivia was able to regain their trust. After a march of five months, and suffering great privations, the expedition arrived at the Copiapo valley. Valdivia officially took possession of the land in the name of the Spanish king.
Soon thereafter they continued south and in December 1540, eleven months after they left Cuzco, Valdivia and his expedition reached the valley of theMapocho river, where they established the capital of the territory. The valley was extensive and well populated with natives. Its soil was fertile and there was abundant fresh water. Two high hills provided defensive positions. Soon after their arrival, Valdivia tried to convince the native inhabitants of his good intentions, sending out delegations bearing gifts for thecaciques.
Finally on February 12, 1541, Valdivia officially founded the city ofSantiago de la Nueva Extremadura[10] (named after Saint James,Santiago in Spanish, and Valdivia's home region ofExtremadura, Spain). The ceremony was held at the foot of theHuelén hill (now known asSanta Lucia hill).[11]
After arriving in Chile, Valdivia and his men worked to restore a positive relationship between the conquistadores and Indians, which had been greatly harmed by Almagro and his merciless ways. At first, Valdivia was successful in his efforts, but this peaceful coexistence did not last long. One of the first orders that Valdivia gave was to have a ship constructed at the mouth of theAconcagua River to send to Peru for further supplies and to serve as a courier service. He then had to return in haste to Santiago to subdue a mutiny. The Spaniards' greed surfaced and overshadowed previous intentions when rumors of gold arose at the Marga Marga mines, in the vicinity of Valparaiso. The Spanish imposed slavery on the indigenous population to profit from the mines.
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On learning of Francisco Pizarro's murder in 1541, Valdivia had himself appointed governor of the territory by the council of the new city, and removed Chile from Peruvian control, acknowledging only the royal authority, an arrangement the Crown found acceptable. Secure now in his own domain, he pushed exploration southward and aided the development of the country by dividing the land among his ablest followers and parceling out the Indians in encomiendas. Chile possessed minerals, but Valdivia definitely subordinated mining to agriculture and stock raising. Still, the colony was not prosperous; gold was scarce and the Araucanians warlike.
After an apparent peaceful period the Natives began to resist the invaders. Valdivia marched against the tribes and defeated them at Cachapoal. While away, on September 11, 1541, local people led byMichimalonco attacked Santiago. The defense of the city was led by Pedro's mistressInés de Suárez. The Spaniards, desperate and willing to fight until death, were able to eventually push the Natives back; Valdivia and his troops made it back just in time to relieve the capital.
By the time the battle ended the entire town had been destroyed and burned to the ground, animals were killed and the fields and stores were decimated. Only a small amount of property was not destroyed, including a handful of seeds, two sows, one pig and a pair of chickens.[12] Valdivia organized his men into groups to keep watch over the crops and protect the city against attack. For the next two years, there were men always saddled and armed, ready to fight in case the Natives posed a threat to Spanish authority.
This event meant a real setback for the conquest of the Chilean territory. The resistance of the Native people became stronger daily, and as the ship that he had constructed in Aconcagua was also destroyed by the natives, Valdivia sent in 1542 overland to Peru his lieutenantAlonso de Monroy with five followers to seek reinforcements, but, on account of the disturbance in that country in consequence of the defeat ofEl Mozo Almagro byCristóbal Vaca de Castro, Monroy could not obtain much aid, and returned in September 1543, with only seventy horsemen, also sending by sea a vessel with provisions and ammunition to the port of Aconcagua.
In September 1543 new arms, clothes and other equipment arrived from Peru on the shipSantiaguillo; thanks to these new supplies, Valdivia was in the position to start the rebuilding of Santiago and to send an expedition, led byJuan Bohón, to explore and populate the northern region of Chile.[13] This expedition foundedLa Serena halfway between Santiago and the northernAtacama Desert, in the valley ofCoquimbo.[14]Valparaíso, though used as a port by the Spaniards from the start, had no considerable population until much later.
In 1544 Valdivia sent a naval expedition consisting of thebarksSan Pedro andSantiaguillo, under the command ofJuan Bautista Pastene, to reconnoiter the southwestern coast of South America, ordering him to reach theStrait of Magellan.[15] The expedition set sail from Valparaíso and although Pastene did not reach this goal, he explored much of the coast.[16] He entered thebay of San Pedro, and made landings at what are now known asConcepción and atValdivia, which was later named in honor of the commander. Encountering severe storms further south, he then returned to Valparaiso.
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In February 1546 Valdivia himself set out, with sixty horsemen plus native guides and porters, and crossed theItata River. He arrived as far as theBío-Bío River where he intended to further efforts at colonization by founding another town. However,Mapuche warriors defended their territory at theBattle of Quilacura. Realizing that it would be impossible to proceed in such hostile territory with so limited a force, Valdivia wisely elected to return to Santiago shortly thereafter, after finding a site for a new city at what is nowPenco and would become the first site ofConcepción. Still, Valdivia managed to subdue the country between Santiago and theMaule River.
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To secure additional aid and confirm his claims to the conquered territory, Valdivia returned in 1547 to Peru, leavingFrancisco de Villagra as governor in his stead.[17] There he tried to gather more resources and men to continue the conquest. When theGonzalo Pizarro rebellion began in Peru, the insurgents attempted unsuccessfully to win Valdivia to their side. Nonetheless, early in 1548 Valdivia joined the royal army ofViceroyPedro de la Gasca, and his military experience counted heavily in thevictory of Xaquixahuana on April 9 of that year. In the battle, Valdivia metFrancisco de Carvajal, who just like him had also fought in theItalian Wars, been at theSack of Rome and helped to defeat Diego de Almagro.[18]
Nonetheless, a discontented faction from Chile managed to have him tried in Lima, accused of tyranny, malfeasance of public funds and public immorality. One of the charges levelled against him was that he, being married, openly lived withInés de Suárez"...in the manner of man and wife and they sleep in one bed and they eat in one dish...".[19] In exchange for being freed, and for his confirmation as Royal Governor, he agreed to relinquish her and to bring to Chile his wife,Marina Ortíz de Gaete, who only arrived after Valdivia's death in 1554. He was also ordered to marry Inés off, which he did, upon his return to Chile in 1549, to one of his captains,Rodrigo de Quiroga. As recognition for his services Valdivia was finally appointed asadelantado and won the royal assent to his coveted title ofGovernor of Chile, returning to the settlement with his position and prestige considerably strengthened.
Between 1549 and 1553, after his return to Santiago, Valdivia began to expand Spanish rule south of theBiobío River intoAraucanía, but faced heavy resistance from the indigenous population. Valdivia had clashed with theMapuche Indians and defeated them in several battles, but he was never able to permanently subdue them as they were determined to not surrender . In spite of the fierce resistance at theBattle of Penco, he foundedConcepción on March 3, 1550[disputed –discuss]. Later he founded more southern settlements such asLa Imperial,Valdivia,Angol andVillarrica, in 1551 and 1552.
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After a brief stay inSantiago, Valdivia returned to the south again in December 1552. To keep the route open betweenConcepción and the southern settlements, Valdivia built a number of forts in theNahuelbuta Mountains. He moved against the Mapuche Indians again in 1553 and built a fort at Tucapel. By the advice of the caciqueColocolo, the Mapuches united their efforts choosing asToqui (general-in-chief) the famous warriorCaupolicán.
Valdivia's soldiers had earlier capturedLautaro, a Mapuche youth who became hispage. Valdivia taught the use of European military tactics and weapons to Lautaro, as he hoped Lautaro would serve as anIndian auxiliary. Lautaro secretly remained loyal to his own people and rejoined them to showCaupolicán a plan by which Valdivia could be defeated. Toward the end of 1553, the Mapuches under Lautaro revolted and attacked the over-extended Spanish forces in the south. One of the first actions of the rebellion was the attack on the fort at Tucapel, where they managed to destroy the fort on December 2, 1553. Valdivia was at Concepcion when he was informed of the attack, and he quickly left with his troops to go to Tucapel.
Valdivia and his army arrived at the ruins of Fort Tucapel, which had been burned down after its garrison retreated. A large Mapuche army led by Lautaro then suddenly emerged from the forests and attacked, which began theBattle of Tucapel. The Mapuche warriors attacked in several waves, which gradually wore down the Spaniards and their auxiliaries. Unlike in previous battles, the Spanish cavalry was unable to defeat their enemy, as the Mapuches had learned how to counter them by usingpikes.[20] After his army was routed, Valdivia attempted to escape with his horse, but he was captured by the victorious Mapuches, who planned to execute him.
There are many different accounts of how Valdivia's killing took place. According toJerónimo de Vivar, an author contemporary with the events, the execution of Valdivia was personally ordered byCaupolicán, who had him killed with a lance, and later his head, and those of two of his bravest companions, were put on display.[21]Alonso de Góngora Marmolejo, another contemporary chronicler, writes that Valdivia offered as a ransom for his life the evacuation of all the Spanish settlements in theMapuche lands and the gift of large herds of animals,[22] but this offer was rejected.[23]Alonso de Ercilla reported that Valdivia was killed with the blow of a club, and then with a knife a warrior cut open his breast and ripped out his heart.[24]Another contemporary chronicler,Pedro Mariño de Lobera, wrote that Valdivia offered to evacuate the lands of the Mapuche but says he was shortly thereafter killed with a large club by a vengeful warrior namedPilmaiquen, who said that Valdivia could not be trusted to keep his word once freed.[25] Lobera says that a common story in Chile at the time was that Valdivia had been killed by being forced to drink molten gold, although this story was most likely apocryphal.[26]
The most detailed and most likely accurate account of Valdivia's death was given byDiego de Rosales, a Spanish historian who spoke with several Mapuches. According to Rosales, the Mapuches ritualistically killed Valdivia as a form ofhuman sacrifice.[27] After the Battle of Tucapel, a large crowd of Mapuche people gathered to watch the execution of Valdivia. The Mapuche warriors placed their spears and arrows on the ground in the shape of a circle, and they planned to kill Valdivia in the middle of this circle. When Valdivia was taken to the circle, a Mapuche man walked up behind him and killed Valdivia by smashing his head with a wooden club.[27] The Mapuche crowd then began to stomp and chant after he was killed, and Valdivia's heart was then cut out from his body. Valdivia's heart was then cut into pieces and eaten by the Mapuche chieftains, as they believed they would absorb Valdivia's spiritual power by eating it. The Mapuches also turned Valdivia's skull into a drinking cup forchicha, and they turned his leg bones intoflutes. After Valdivia's execution, the Mapuches sang a victory song and held a long celebration.[27]
Valdivia was an educated man and wielded the pen as well as the sword. In 1552 Valdivia despatched CaptainJerónimo de Alderete with a narrative of his exploits directly to the kingCharles I. His twelve letters, addressed to the king and mostly preserved in the archives of the Indies, are models of a vigorous and fluent style, and of great historical interest.
His career and death are chronicled in the epic poemLa Araucana byAlonso de Ercilla. He is also a major character in several historical novels, such asInés y las raíces de la tierra, byMaría Correa Morande (1964);Ay Mamá Inés - Crónica Testimonial (1993) by Jorge Guzmán;Arauco: A Novel (2013), by John Caviglia; andInés of My Soul (Spanish:Inés del alma mía) byIsabel Allende (2006),They sure did something for the history of Chile byAlvaro Espinoza.
Era Valdivia, cuando murió, de edad de cincuenta y seis años, natural de un lugar de Extremadura pequeño, llamado Castuera.
...por ser de su tierra de Extremadura como por tener práctica de guerra de cristianos, la cual había adquirido y seguido en tiempo del marqués de Pescara en la compañía del capitán Herrera, natural de Valladolid, sobre la diferencia y competencia que se tuvo con el rey Francisco de Francia sobre el Estado de Milán.
...Dar relación de cómo pasé a estas partes de Indias, año de quinientos e treinta e cinco, y me hallé en el descubrimiento e conquista de Venezuela un año. Dar relación cómo el año adelante de quinientos e treinta y seis pasé a las provincias del Perú...
...fué casado con una señora llamada doña Marina Ortiz de Gaete, en Salamanca
...y llegado al valle de Copiapó, lo que trabajé en hacer la guerra a los naturales e fuertes que les rompí y la guerra que hice por todos los valles adelante, hasta que llegué al valle de Mapocho, que es cien leguas de Copiapó, e fundé la cibdad de Sanctiago del Nuevo Extremo, a los veinte e cuatro de hebrero del año de mill quinientos e cuarenta e uno, formando Cabildo, Justicia e Regimiento.
...que no quedamos sino con los andrajos que teníamos para la guerra y con las armas que a cuestas traíamos, y dos porquezuelas y un cochinillo y una polla y un pollo y, hasta dos almuerzas de trigo
Procuré este verano pasado, en tanto que yo entendía en dar manera para enviar al Perú, poblar la cibdad de la Serena en el valle de Coquimbo, que es a la mitad del camino, y hase dado tan buena maña el teniente que allí envié con la gente que llevó, que dentro de dos meses trujo de paz todos aquellos valles, y llámase el capitán Juan Bohón
Pusieron al pueblo por nombre la ciudad de la Serena un lunes que se contaron quince días del mes de noviembre del año de 1543 y diéronle este nombre por respeto del capitán Valdivia, que era natural de la Serena en España...
...vista la voluntad del piloto e capitán Juan Batista de Pastene, y con el celo que había venido al socorro desta tierra con su navío llamado San Pedro, que fue por servir a S.M. y se me ofresció de le servir, y a mi en su cesáreo nombre, y le conoscí por hombre de valor y de prudencia y espiriencia de guerra de indios e nuevos descubrimientos, le crié e di la abtoridad de mi lugarteniente de capitán general en la mar, y le envié con su navío y con otro en conserva e gente la que era menester, a que me descubriese por la costa arriba hacia el Estrecho de Magallanes hasta doscientas leguas, y me trajese lenguas...
Viendo la voluntad del capitán Juan Baptista, por principios de mes de septiembre adelante le di un poder y le entregué un estandarte con las armas de S. M., y debajo del escudo imperial uno con las mías, para que me fuese a descobrir doscientas leguas de costa y tomase posesión, en nombre de V. M., por mí, y me trujese lenguas; y dile treinta hombres, muy buenos soldados, que fueron en su navío.
...proveí por mi Teniente General al Capitán Francisco de Villagra y le dejé a la guardia de esta tierra para que la defendiese e sustentase en servicio de S. M. e paz e justicia, por cuanto yo iba a servir a S. M. a las provincias del Perú a ser contra Gonzalo Pizarro...
...que ha mas de ocho años esta amancebado con esta mujer, y duermen en una cama y comen en un plato...
ayer mataron al apo y todos los cristianos que con él venían, que no escapó ninguno, y todos los yanaconas de servicio, si no eran los que se habían escondido.
Viéndose con lengua les comenzó a hablar, diciéndoles que les sacaría los cristianos de el reino y despoblaría las ciudades y daría dos mill ovejas si le daban la vida..
hicieron los indios un fuego delante de él, y con una cáscara de almejas de la mar, que ellos llaman pello en su lengua, le cortaron los lagartos de los brazos desde el codo a la muñeca; teniendo espadas, dagas y cuchillos con que podello hacer, no quisieron por dalle mayor martirio, y los comieron asados en su presencia. Hechos otros muchos vituperios lo mataron a él y al capellán, y la cabeza pusieron en una lanza juntamente con las demás de los cristianos, que no les escapó ninguno..
un cacique llamado Pilmaiquen, a quien él había hecho vasallo . . . sin aguardar más embites levantó una gran porra que tenía en las manos y la descargó con gran furia sobre el infelice Valdivia haciéndole pedazos la cabeza.
hicieron con él muchas fiestas por burla y escarnio, y por remate trajeron una olla de oro ardiendo y se la presentaron, diciéndole: pues tan amigo eres de oro, hártate agora dél, y para que lo tengas más guardado, abre la boca y bebe aqueste que viene fundido, y diciendo esto lo hicieron como lo dijeron, dándoselo a beber por fuerza, teniendo por fin de su muerte lo que tuvo por fin de su entrada en Chile.
Media related toPedro de Valdivia at Wikimedia Commons| Government offices | ||
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| Preceded by none | Royal Governor of Chile 1540–1547 | Succeeded by |
| Preceded by | Royal Governor of Chile 1549–1553 | Succeeded by |
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