Potash (/ˈpɒtæʃ/POT-ash) includes various mined and manufacturedsalts that containpotassium in water-soluble form.[1] The name derives frompot ash, plant ashes orwood ash soaked in water in a pot, the primary means of manufacturing potash before theIndustrial Era. The wordpotassium is derived frompotash.[2]
Potash is produced worldwide in amounts exceeding 71.9 milliontonnes (~45.4 million tonnesK2O equivalent[5]) per year as of 2021, with Canada being the largest producer, mostly for use infertilizer.[6] Various kinds of fertilizer-potash constitute the single greatest industrial use of the element potassium in the world. Potassium was first derived in 1807 byelectrolysis of caustic potash (potassium hydroxide).[7]
Potash refers to potassium compounds and potassium-bearing materials, most commonly potassium carbonate. The word "potash" originates from theMiddle Dutchpotaschen, denoting "pot ashes" in 1477.[8]The old method of makingpotassium carbonate (K
2CO
3) was by collecting or producingwood ash (the occupation ofash burners),leaching the ashes, and then evaporating the resulting solution in large iron pots, which left a white residue denominated "pot ash".[9] Approximately 10% by weight of commonwood ash can be recovered as potash.[10][11] Later, "potash" became widely applied to naturally occurring minerals that contained potassium salts and the commercial product derived from them.[12]
The following table lists a number of potassium compounds that have "potash" in their traditional names:
| Common name | Chemical name (Formula) | |
|---|---|---|
| Potash fertilizer | Up to the early 20th century:potassium carbonate (K2CO3). Beginning from the late 19th century: one or more ofpotassium chloride (KCl),potassium sulfate (K2SO4) orpotassium nitrate (KNO3).[13][14] Doesnot containpotassium oxide (K2O), which plants do not take up;[15] the amount of potassium is often reported as K2O equivalent (that is, how much it would be if in K2O form), however, to allow apples-to-apples comparison between different fertilizers using different types of potash. | |
| Caustic potash or potash lye | potassium hydroxide (KOH) | |
| Carbonate of potash,salts of tartar, orpearl ash | potassium carbonate (K2CO3) | |
| Chlorate of potash | potassium chlorate (KClO3) | |
| Muriate of potash (MOP) | potassium chloride (KCl:NaCl = 95:5 or higher)[1] | |
| Nitrate of potash or saltpeter | potassium nitrate (KNO3) | |
| Sulfate of potash (SOP) | potassium sulfate (K2SO4) | |
| Permanganate of potash | potassium permanganate (KMnO4) | |
Most of the world reserves of potassium (K) were deposited as sea water in ancientinland oceans. After the water evaporated, the potassium salts crystallized into beds of potash ore. These are the locations where potash is being mined today. The deposits are a naturally occurring mixture of potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl), more commonly known astable salt. Over time, as the surface of the earth changed, these deposits were covered by thousands of feet of earth.[16]
Potash (especially potassium carbonate) has been used in bleaching textiles, makingglass, ceramic, and makingsoap, since theBronze Age.[17] Potash was principally obtained byleaching the ashes of wood burned for heating and cooking.
Beginning in the 14th century potash was mined inEthiopia. One of the world's largest deposits, 140 to 150 million tons, is located in theDallol area of theAfar Region.[18]
Potash was one of the most important industrial chemicals. It was refined from the ashes ofbroadleaved trees and produced primarily in the forested areas of Europe,Russia, andNorth America. Although methods for producing artificial alkalis were invented in the late 18th century, these did not become economical until the late 19th century and so the dependence on organic sources of potash remained.
Potash became an important international trade commodity in Europe from at least the early 14th century. It is estimated that European imports of potash required 6 or more million cubic metres each year from the early 17th century.[19] Between 1420 and 1620, the primary exporting cities forwood-derived potash wereGdańsk,Königsberg andRiga. In the late 15th century, London was the lead importer due to its position as the centre of soft soap making while the Dutch dominated as suppliers and consumers in the 16th century.[19] From the 1640s, geopolitical disruptions (i.e.Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)) meant that the centres of export moved from the Baltic toArchangelsk, Russia. In 1700, Russian ash was dominant though Gdańsk remained notable for the quality of its potash.
On theOrkney islands,kelp ash provided potash andsoda ash, production starting "possibly as early as 1719" and lasting for a century. The products were "eagerly sought after by the glass and soap industries of the time."[20]
By the 18th century, higher quality American potash was increasingly exported to Britain. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, potash production provided settlers in North America badly needed cash and credit as they cleared wooded land for crops. To make full use of their land, settlers needed to dispose of excess wood. The easiest way to accomplish this was to burn any wood not needed for fuel or construction. Ashes fromhardwood trees could then be used to makelye, which could either be used to make soap or boiled down to produce valuable potash. Hardwood could generate ashes at the rate of 60 to 100bushels per acre (500 to 900 m3/km2). In 1790, the sale of ashes could generate $3.25 to $6.25 per acre ($800 to $1,500/km2) in ruralNew York State – nearly the same rate as hiring a laborer to clear the same area. Potash making became a major industry in British North America. Great Britain was always the most important market. The American potash industry followed the woodsman's ax across the country.
The firstUS patent of any kind was issued in 1790 toSamuel Hopkins for an improvement "in the making of Pot ash and Pearl ash by a new Apparatus and Process".[21]Pearl ash was a purer quality made bycalcination of potash in areverberatory furnace or kiln.Potash pits were once used inEngland to produce potash that was used in making soap for the preparation of wool for yarn production.
After about 1820, New York replaced New England as the most important source; by 1840 the center was in Ohio. Potash production was always a by-product industry, following from the need to clear land foragriculture.[16]
From 1767, potash from wood ashes was exported from Canada. By 1811, 70% of the total 19.6 million lbs of potash imports to Britain came from Canada.[19] Exports of potash and pearl ash reached 43,958 barrels in 1865. There were 519asheries in operation in 1871.
The wood-ash industry declined in the late 19th century when large-scale production ofpotash from mineral salts was established inGermany. In the early 20th century, the potash industry was dominated by a cartel in which Germany had the dominant role.[22]: 147 WWI saw a brief resurgence of American asheries, with their product typically consisting of 66% hydroxide, 17% carbonate, 16% sulfate and other impurities.[23] Later in the century, the cartel ended as new potash producers emerged in the USSR and Canada.[22]: 147
In 1943, potash was discovered inSaskatchewan, Canada, during oil drilling. Active exploration began in 1951. In 1958, the Potash Company of America became the first potash producer in Canada with the commissioning of an underground potash mine atPatience Lake.[11] As numerous potash producers in Canada developed, the Saskatchewan government became increasingly involved in the industry, leading to the creation ofCanpotex in the 1970s.[22]: 147
In 1964 the Canadian company Kalium Chemicals established the first potash mine using the solution process. The discovery was made during oil reserve exploration. The mine was developed near Regina, Saskatchewan. The mine reached depths greater than 1500 meters. It is now the Mosaic Corporation's Belle Plaine unit.
The USSR's potash production had largely been for domestic use and use in theCouncil for Mutual Economic Assistance countries.[22]: 147 After thedissolution of the USSR, Russian andBelarusian potash producers entered into direct competition with producers elsewhere in the world for the first time.[22]: 147
In the beginning of the 20th century, potash deposits were found in theDallol Depression in the Musely and Crescent localities near the Ethiopean-Eritrean border. The estimated reserves in Musely and Crescent are 173 and 12 million tonnes respectively. The latter is particularly suitable for surface mining. It was explored in the 1960s but the works stopped due to flooding in 1967. Attempts to continue mining in the 1990s were halted by theEritrean–Ethiopian War and have not resumed as of 2009.[24]
All commercial potash deposits come originally fromevaporite deposits and are often buried deep below the earth's surface. Potash ores are typically rich in potassium chloride (KCl), sodium chloride (NaCl) and other salts and clays, and are typically obtained by conventional shaft mining with the extracted ore ground into a powder.[25] Most potash mines today are deep shaft mines as much as 4,400 feet (1,400 m) underground. Others are mined as strip mines, having been laid down in horizontal layers assedimentary rock. In above-ground processing plants, the KCl is separated from the mixture to produce a high-analysis potassium fertilizer. Other potassium salts can be separated by various procedures, resulting in potassium sulfate and potassium-magnesium sulfate.
Other methods include dissolution mining and evaporation methods from brines. In the evaporation method, hot water is injected into the potash, which is dissolved and then pumped to the surface where it is concentrated by solar induced evaporation.Amine reagents are then added to either the mined or evaporated solutions. The amine coats the KCl but not NaCl. Air bubbles cling to the amine + KCl and float it to the surface while the NaCl and clay sink to the bottom. The surface is skimmed for the amine + KCl, which is then dried and packaged for use as a K rich fertilizer—KCl dissolves readily in water and is available quickly forplant nutrition.[26]
Recovery of potassium fertilizer salts from sea water has been studied inIndia.[27] During extraction of salt from seawater by evaporation, potassium salts get concentrated inbittern, an effluent from the salt industry.
Potash deposits are distributed unevenly throughout the world.[22]: 147 As of 2015[update], deposits are being mined in Canada, Russia, China, Belarus, Israel, Germany, Chile, the United States, Jordan, Spain, the United Kingdom, Uzbekistan and Brazil,[28] with the most significant deposits present under the great depths of thePrairie Evaporite Formation inSaskatchewan, Canada.[11] Canada and Russia are the countries where the bulk of potash is produced; Belarus is also a major producer.[22]: 12
ThePermian Basin deposit includes the major mines outside ofCarlsbad, New Mexico, to the world's purest potash deposit inLea County, New Mexico (near the Carlsbad deposits), which is believed to be roughly 80% pure. (Osceola County, Michigan, has deposits 90+% pure; the only mine there was converted to salt production, however.) Canada is the largest producer, followed by Russia and Belarus. The most significant reserve of Canada's potash is located in the province of Saskatchewan and is mined byThe Mosaic Company,Nutrien andK+S.[1]
InChina, most potash deposits are concentrated in the deserts and salt flats of theendorheic basins of its western provinces, particularlyQinghai. Geological expeditions discovered the reserves in the 1950s[29] but commercial exploitation lagged untilDeng Xiaoping'sReform and Opening Up Policy in the 1980s. The 1989 opening of the Qinghai Potash Fertilizer Factory in the remoteQarhan Playa increased China's production ofpotassium chloride sixfold, from less than 40,000 t (39,000 long tons; 44,000 short tons) a year atHaixi andTanggu to just under 240,000 t (240,000 long tons; 260,000 short tons) a year.[30]
In 2013, almost 70% of potash production was controlled byCanpotex, an exporting and marketing firm, and theBelarusian Potash Company. The latter was a joint venture betweenBelaruskali andUralkali, but on July 30, 2013, Uralkali announced that it had ended the venture.[31]
Potash iswater soluble and transporting it requires special transportation infrastructure.[22]: 152
| Rank | Country | Extraction in metric tons K2O equivalent | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | ||
| 1 |  Canada | 10,789,662 | 12,562,695 | 14,023,931 | 12,643,318 | 13,881,665 |
| 2 |  Russia | 6,480,000 | 7,300,000 | 7,055,000 | 7,368,000 | 8,167,300 |
| 3 |  Belarus | 6,180,100 | 7,101,800 | 7,346,096 | 7,348,293 | 7,562,153 |
| 4 |  China | 5,783,000 | 5,534,000 | 5,452,000 | 5,902,000 | 5,530,000 |
| 5 |  Germany | 2,750,841 | 2,963,561 | 2,754,085 | 2,615,284 | 2,874,026 |
| 6 |  Israel | 2,093,100 | 2,126,700 | 2,149,300 | 2,043,500 | 2,415,600 |
| 7 |  Jordan | 1,222,140 | 1,415,260 | 1,485,960 | 1,516,460 | 1,598,200 |
| 8 |  Chile | 1,303,840 | 1,238,630 | 991,180 | 683,540 | 966,680 |
| 9 |  United States | 510,000 | 480,000 | 520,000 | 510,000 | 460,000 |
| 10 |  Spain | 672,246 | 557,468 | 635,490 | 547,100 | 455,000 |
| 11 |  Laos | 198,600 | 307,600 | 343,500 | 286,900 | 442,500 |
| 12 |  Brazil | 316,429 | 306,296 | 201,181 | 269,300 | 276,600 |
| 13 |  Uzbekistan | 83,000 | 114,900 | 176,900 | 198,400 | 210,000 |
| 14 |  United Kingdom | 482,800 | 297,400 | 291,100 | 84,000 | 99,260 |
| 15 |  Iran | 10,500 | 15,300 | 32,900 | 37,200 | 37,000 |
| 16 |  Turkmenistan | 0 | 0 | 15,200 | 11,100 | 16,000 |
| 17 |  Bolivia | 0 | 0 | 1,700 | 17,800 | 4,400 |
| Total | 38,876,258 | 42,321,610 | 43,475,523 | 42,082,195 | 44,996,384 | |
Excessive respiratory disease due to environmental hazards, such asradon andasbestos, has been a concern for potash miners throughout history. Potash miners are liable to developsilicosis. Based on a study conducted between 1977 and 1987 of cardiovascular disease among potash workers, the overall mortality rates were low, but a noticeable difference in above-ground workers was documented.[32]
| Country | Production | Reserves |
|---|---|---|
| Canada | 14.2 (28.57%) | 1,100 (33.33%) |
| Russia | 9.1 (17.14%) | 400 (12.12%) |
| Belarus | 7.6 (16.48%) | 750 (22.73%) |
| China | 6.0 (14.76%) | 170 (5.15%) |
| Germany | 2.8 (6.90%) | 150 (4.55%) |
| Israel | 2.4 (5.14%) | Large (?%) |
| Jordan | 1.6 (3.37%) | Large (?%) |
| Chile | 0.9 (1.85%) | 100 (3.03%) |
| United States | 0.5 (1.04%) | 220 (6.67%) |
| Spain | 0.4 (0.79%) | 68 (2.06%) |
| Brazil | 0.3 (0.58%) | 2.3 (0.01%) |
| Other countries | 0.4 (0.76%) | 300 (9.09%) |
| World total | 46.3 (100.00%) | >3,300 (100.00%) |
Potassium is the third major plant and crop nutrient afternitrogen andphosphorus. It has been used sinceantiquity as asoilfertilizer (about 90% of current use).[10] Fertilizer use is the main driver behind potash consumption, especially for its use in fertilizing crops that contribute to high-protein diets.[22]: 23 As of at least 2010, more than 95% of potash is mined for use in agricultural purposes.[22]: 24
Elemental potassium does not occur in nature because it reacts violently with water.[34] As part of various compounds, potassium makes up about 2.6% of theEarth's crust by mass and is the seventh most abundant element, similar in abundance to sodium at approximately 1.8% of the crust.[35] Potash is important for agriculture because it improves water retention, yield, nutrient value, taste, color, texture[22]: 24 and disease resistance of food crops. It has wide application to fruit and vegetables, rice, wheat and other grains, sugar, corn, soybeans,palm oil and cotton, all of which benefit from the nutrient's quality-enhancing properties.[36]
Demand for food and animal feed has been on the rise since 2000. TheUnited States Department of Agriculture'sEconomic Research Service (ERS) attributes the trend to average annual population increases of 75 million people around the world. Geographically, economic growth in Asia and Latin America greatly contributed to the increased use of potash-based fertilizer. Rising incomes in developing countries also were a factor in the growing potash and fertilizer use. With more money in the household budget, consumers added more meat and dairy products to their diets. This shift in eating patterns required more acres to be planted, more fertilizer to be applied and more animals to be fed—all requiring more potash.
After years of trending upward, fertilizer use slowed in 2008. The worldwide economic downturn is the primary reason for the declining fertilizer use, dropping prices, and mounting inventories.[37][38]
The world's largest consumers of potash are China, the United States, Brazil, and India.[39] Brazil imports 90% of the potash it needs.[39] Potash consumption for fertilizers is expected to increase to about 37.8 million tonnes by 2022.[40]
Potash imports and exports are often reported in K2Oequivalent, although fertilizer never contains potassium oxide, per se, because potassium oxide iscaustic andhygroscopic.
At the beginning of 2008, potash prices started a meteoric climb from less than US$200 a tonne to a high of US$875 in February 2009.[41] These subsequently dropped dramatically to an April 2010 low of US$310 level, before recovering in 2011–12, and relapsing again in 2013. For reference, prices in November 2011 were about US$470 per tonne, but as of May 2013 were stable at US$393.[42] After the surprise breakup of the world's largest potash cartel at the end of July 2013, potash prices were poised to drop some 20 percent.[43] At the end of December 2015, potash traded for US$295 a tonne. In April 2016 its price was US$269.[44] In May 2017, prices had stabilised at around US$216 a tonne down 18% from the previous year. By January 2018, prices have been recovering to around US$225 a tonne.[45] World potash demand tends to be price inelastic in the short-run and even in the long run.[40]
In addition to its use as a fertilizer, potassium chloride is important in many industrialized economies, where it is used inaluminium recycling, by thechloralkali industry to produce potassium hydroxide, in metalelectroplating, oil-welldrilling fluid, snow and ice melting, steel heat-treating, in medicine as a treatment forhypokalemia, andwater softening. Potassium hydroxide is used for industrial water treatment and is the precursor of potassium carbonate, several forms of potassium phosphate, many other potassic chemicals, and soap manufacturing. Potassium carbonate is used to produceanimal feed supplements,cement,fire extinguishers, food products,photographic chemicals, and textiles. It is also used inbrewingbeer, pharmaceutical preparations, and as acatalyst forsynthetic rubber manufacturing. Also combined withsilica sand to producepotassium silicate, sometimes known aswaterglass, for use inpaints andarc welding electrodes. These non-fertilizer uses have accounted for about 15% of annual potash consumption in the United States.[1]
No substitutes exist for potassium as an essential plant nutrient and as an essential nutritional requirement for animals and humans.[22]: 143 Manure andglauconite (greensand) are low-potassium-content sources that can be profitably transported only short distances to crop fields.[33]
This article incorporatespublic domain material fromPotash(PDF).United States Geological Survey.| Lumber/ timber | |
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