Thepeanut (Arachis hypogaea), also known as thegroundnut,[a][2]goober (US),[3]goober pea,[4]pindar (US)[3] ormonkey nut (UK), is alegume crop grown mainly for its edibleseeds, contained in underground pods. It is widely grown in thetropics andsubtropics by small and large commercial producers, both as agrain legume[5] and as anoil crop.[6]Geocarpy is atypical among legumes, which led botanistCarl Linnaeus to name the specieshypogaea, from Greek 'under the earth'.
Peanuts are similar in taste and nutritional profile to tree nuts such aswalnuts andalmonds, and, as aculinary nut, are often served in similar ways inWestern cuisines.
Botanical description
Illustration of a peanut plant and pods with seeds in "Les plantes potagères" Vilmorin Andrieux 1903Peanut flower
The peanut is anannualherbaceous plant growing 30 to 50 centimetres (12 to 20 in) tall.[9] As a legume, it belongs to the botanical familyFabaceae, also known as Leguminosae, and commonly known as the legume, bean, or pea family.[1] Like most other legumes, peanuts harbor symbioticnitrogen-fixing bacteria in theirroot nodules.[7]
Theleaves areopposite andpinnate with four leaflets (two opposite pairs; no terminal leaflet); each leaflet is 1 to 7 cm (1⁄2 to2+3⁄4 in) long and1 to 3 cm (1⁄2 to1+1⁄4 in) across. Like those of many other legumes, the leaves arenyctinastic; that is, they have "sleep" movements, closing at night.[10]
The flowers are1 to 1.5 cm (3⁄8 to5⁄8 in) across, and yellowish orange with reddish veining.[11][9] They are borne inaxillary clusters on the stems above ground and last for just one day. The ovary is located at the base of what appears to be the flower stem but is a highly elongatedfloral cup.[citation needed]
Peanut fruits develop underground, an unusual feature known asgeocarpy.[12] Afterfertilization, a short stalk at the base of the ovary—often termed agynophore, but which appears to be part of the ovary—elongates to form a thread-like structure known as a "peg". This peg grows into the soil, allowing the fruit to develop underground.[12] These pods, technically called legumes, are 3 to 7 centimetres (1 to 3 in) long, normally containing one to fourseeds.[11][9] The shell of the peanut fruit consists primarily of a mesocarp with several large veins traversing its length.[12]
TheArachis genus is native toSouth America, east of theAndes, aroundPeru,Bolivia,Argentina, andBrazil.[15] Cultivated peanuts (A. hypogaea) arose from ahybrid between two wild species of peanut, thought to beA. duranensis andA. ipaensis.[15][16][17] The initial hybrid would have been sterile, but spontaneouschromosome doubling restored its fertility, forming what is termed anamphidiploid orallotetraploid.[15] Genetic analysis suggests the hybridization may have occurred only once and gave rise toA. monticola, a wild form of peanut that occurs in a few limited locations in northwestern Argentina, or in southeastern Bolivia, where the peanutlandraces with the most wild-like features are grown today,[11] and byartificial selection toA. hypogaea.[15][16]
The process of domestication through artificial selection madeA. hypogaea dramatically different from its wild relatives. The domesticated plants are bushier, more compact, and have a different pod structure and larger seeds. From thiscenter of origin, cultivation spread and formed secondary and tertiarycenters of diversity in Peru,Ecuador, Brazil,Paraguay, andUruguay. Over time, thousands of peanut landraces evolved; these are classified into six botanical varieties and two subspecies (as listed in the peanut scientific classification table). SubspeciesA. h. fastigiata types are more upright in their growth habit and have shorter crop cycles. SubspeciesA. h. hypogaea types spread more on the ground and have longer crop cycles.[11]
The oldest knownarcheological remains of pods have been dated at about 7,600 years old, possibly a wild species that was in cultivation, orA. hypogaea in the early phase of domestication.[18] They were found in Peru, where dry climatic conditions are favorable for the preservation of organic material. Almost certainly, peanut cultivation predated this at the center of origin where the climate is moister. Manypre-Columbian cultures, such as theMoche, depicted peanuts in their art.[19] Cultivation was well-established inMesoamerica before the Spanish arrived. There, theconquistadors found thetlālcacahuatl (the plant'sNahuatl name, hence the name inSpanishcacahuate) offered for sale in the marketplace ofTenochtitlan. Its cultivation was introduced in Europe in the 19th century through Spain, particularlyValencia, where it is still produced, albeit marginally.[20] European traders later spread the peanut worldwide, and cultivation is now widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. InWest Africa, it substantially replaced a crop plant from the same family, theBambara groundnut, whose seed pods also develop underground.[21] In China and India, it became an agricultural mainstay, and these countries are the largest producers in the world (Production section).
Peanuts were introduced to the US during thecolonial period and grown as a garden crop.[22][9] Starting in 1870, they were used as ananimal feedstock until human consumption grew in the 1930s.[9]George Washington Carver (1864–1943) championed the peanut as part of his efforts for agricultural extension in the American South, where soils were depleted after repeated plantings of cotton. He invented and promulgated hundreds of peanut-based products, including cosmetics, paints, plastics, gasoline and nitroglycerin.[23]
There are many peanutcultivars grown around the world. The market classes grown in the United States are Spanish, Runner, Virginia, and Valencia.[26] Peanuts are produced in three major areas of the US: the southeastern US region which includes Alabama, Georgia, and Florida; the southwestern US region which includesNew Mexico,Oklahoma, and Texas; and in the general eastern US which includes Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina.[26] In Georgia,Naomi Chapman Woodroof is responsible for developing the breeding program of peanuts, resulting in a harvest almost five times greater.[27]
Certain cultivar groups are preferred for particular characteristics, such as differences in flavor, oil content, size, shape, anddisease resistance.[28] Most peanuts marketed in the shell are of the Virginia type, along with some Valencias selected for large size and the attractive appearance of the shell. Spanish peanuts are used mostly for peanut candy, salted nuts, and peanut butter.
Spanish group
The small Spanish types are grown in South Africa and the southwestern and southeastern United States. Until 1940, 90% of the peanuts grown in theUS state of Georgia were Spanish types, but the trend since then has been larger-seeded, higher-yielding, moredisease-resistant cultivars. Spanish peanuts have a higher oil content than other types of peanuts. In the US, the Spanish group is primarily grown in New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas.[26]
Cultivars of the Spanish group include 'Dixie Spanish', 'Improved Spanish 2B', 'GFA Spanish', 'Argentine', 'Spantex', 'Spanette', 'Shaffers Spanish', 'Natal Common (Spanish)', "White Kernel Varieties', 'Starr', 'Comet', 'Florispan', 'Spanhoma', 'Spancross', 'OLin', 'Tamspan 90', 'AT 9899–14', 'Spanco', 'Wilco I', 'GG 2', 'GG 4', 'TMV 2', and 'Tamnut 06'.
Runner group
Since 1940, the southeastern US region has seen a shift to producing Runner group peanuts. This shift is due to good flavor, better roasting characteristics, and higher yields than Spanish types, leading to food manufacturers' preference for the use in peanut butter and salted nuts. Georgia's production is now almost 100% Runner-type.[28]
Cultivars of Runners include 'Southeastern Runner 56-15', 'Dixie Runner', 'Early Runner', 'Virginia Bunch 67', 'Bradford Runner', 'Egyptian Giant' (also known as 'Virginia Bunch' and 'Giant'), 'Rhodesian Spanish Bunch' (Valencia and Virginia Bunch), 'North Carolina Runner 56-15', 'Florunner', 'Virugard', 'Georgia Green', 'Tamrun 96', 'Flavor Runner 458', 'Tamrun OL01', 'Tamrun OL02' 'AT-120', 'Andru-93', 'Southern Runner', 'AT1-1', 'Georgia Brown', 'GK-7', and 'AT-108'.
Virginia group
The large-seeded Virginia group peanuts are grown in the US states of Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and parts of Georgia. They are increasing in popularity due to the demand for large peanuts for processing, particularly for salting, confections, and roasting in shells.
Virginia group peanuts are either bunch or running in growth habit. The bunch type is upright to spreading. It attains a height of 45 to 55 cm (18 to 22 in), and a spread of 70 to 80 cm (28 to 31 in), with 80 to 90 cm (31 to 35 in) rows that seldom cover the ground. The pods are borne within 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in) of the base of the plant.
Cultivars of Virginia-type peanuts include 'NC 7', 'NC 9', 'NC 10C', 'NC-V 11', 'VA 93B', 'NC 12C', 'VA-C 92R', 'Gregory', 'VA 98R', 'Perry', 'Wilson, 'Hull', 'AT VC-2' and 'Shulamit'.
Valencia group
Valencia peanuts
Valencia group peanuts are coarse and have heavy reddish stems and large foliage. In the United States, large-scale commercial production is mainly in theSouth Plains ofWest Texas and in eastern New Mexico near and south ofPortales, but they are grown on a small scale elsewhere in the South as the best-flavored and preferred type forboiled peanuts. They are comparatively tall, reaching a height of 125 cm (49 in) and a spread of 75 cm (30 in). Peanut pods are borne on pegs arising from the main stem and the side branches. Most pods are clustered around the base of the plant, and only a few are found several inches away. Valencia types are three- to five-seeded and smooth, with no constriction of the shell between the seeds. Seeds are oval and tightly crowded into the pods. Typical seed weight is 0.4 to 0.5 g. This type is used heavily for selling roasted and salted in-shell peanuts and peanut butter. Varieties include 'Valencia A' and 'Valencia C'.
Tennessee Red and Tennessee White groups
These are alike except for the color of the seed. Sometimes known also as Texas Red or White, the plants are similar to Valencia types, except the stems are green to greenish brown, and the pods are rough, irregular, and have a smaller proportion of kernels.
Cultivation
Peanut pegs growing into the soil. The tip of the peg, once buried, swells and develops into a peanut fruit.
Peanuts grow best in light, sandyloam soil with a pH of 5.9–7. Their capacity to fix nitrogen means that providing they nodulate properly, peanuts benefit little or not at all from nitrogen-containingfertilizer,[29] and they improvesoil fertility. Therefore, they are valuable incrop rotations. Also, the yield of the peanut crop itself is increased in rotations through reduced diseases, pests, and weeds. For example, inTexas, peanuts in a three-year rotation with corn yield 50% more than nonrotated peanuts.[29] Adequate levels of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and micronutrients are also necessary for good yields.[29] Peanuts need warm weather throughout the growing season to develop well. They can be grown with as little as 350 mm (14 in) of water,[30] but for best yields need at least 500 mm (20 in).[31] Depending on growing conditions and the cultivar of peanut, harvest is usually 90 to 130 days after planting for subspeciesA. h. fastigiata types, and 120 to 150 days after planting for subspeciesA. h. hypogaea types.[30][32][33] SubspeciesA. h. hypogaea types yield more and are usually preferred where the growing seasons are sufficiently long.
Peanut plants continue to produce flowers when pods are developing; therefore, some pods are immature even when they are ready for harvest. To maximize yield, the timing of harvest is important. If it is too early, too many pods will be unripe; if too late, the pods will snap off at the stalk and remain in the soil.[34] For harvesting, the entire plant, including most of the roots, is removed from the soil.[34] The pods are covered with a network of raised veins and are constricted between seeds.
The main yield-limiting factors in semi-arid regions are drought and high-temperature stress. The stages of reproductive development before flowering, at flowering, and at early pod development are particularly sensitive to these constraints. Apart fromnitrogen,phosphorus andpotassium, other nutrient deficiencies causing significant yield losses arecalcium,iron andboron. Biotic stresses mainly include pests, diseases, and weeds. Among insects pests, pod borers, aphids, and mites are of importance. The most important diseases are leaf spots, rusts, and the toxin-producing fungus Aspergillus.[35]
Harvesting occurs in two stages.[28][self-published source?] In mechanized systems, a machine is used to cut off the main root of the peanut plant by cutting through the soil just below the level of the peanut pods. The machine lifts the "bush" from the ground, shakes it, then inverts it, leaving the plant upside down to keep the peanuts out of the soil. This allows the peanuts to dry slowly to a little less than a third of their original moisture level over three to four days. Traditionally, peanuts were pulled and inverted by hand.
After the peanuts have dried sufficiently, they arethreshed, removing the peanut pods from the rest of the bush.[34] Peanuts must be dried properly and stored in dry conditions. If they are too high in moisture, or if storage conditions are poor, they may become infected by themoldfungusAspergillus flavus. Many strains of this fungus releasetoxic and highlycarcinogenic substances calledaflatoxins.
Pests and diseases
If peanut plants are subjected to severe drought during pod formation, or if pods are not properly stored, they may become contaminated with the moldAspergillus flavus which may producecarcinogenic substances calledaflatoxins. Lower-quality peanuts, particularly where mold is evident, are more likely to be contaminated.[36] The USDA tests every truckload of raw peanuts for aflatoxin; any containing aflatoxin levels of more than 15 parts per billion are destroyed. The peanut industry has manufacturing steps to ensure all peanuts are inspected for aflatoxin.[37] Peanuts tested to have high aflatoxin are used to make peanut oil where the mold can be removed.[38]
The plant leaves can also be affected by a fungus,Alternaria arachidis.[39]
In 2023, world production of peanuts (reported as groundnuts excluding shelled) was 54 milliontonnes, led by China with 36% of the total and India with 19% (table).
Some people (1.4–2% in Europe and the United States[41]) report that they experienceallergic reactions to peanut exposure; symptoms can be especially severe, ranging from watery eyes toanaphylactic shock, the latter of which is generally fatal if untreated. Eating a small amount of peanuts can cause a reaction. Because of their widespread use in prepared and packaged foods, avoiding peanuts can be difficult. Reading ingredients and warnings on product packaging is necessary to avoid this allergen. Foods processed in facilities that also handle peanuts on the same equipment as other foods are required to carry such warnings on their labels. Avoiding cross-contamination with peanuts and peanut products (along with other severe allergens like shellfish) is a promoted and common practice of which chefs and restaurants worldwide are becoming aware.
Thehygiene hypothesis of allergy states that a lack of early childhood exposure to infectious agents like germs and parasites could be causing the increase in food allergies.[42]
Studies comparing age of peanut introduction in Great Britain with introduction in Israel showed that delaying exposure to peanuts in childhood can dramatically increase the risk of developing peanut allergies.[43][44]
Peanut allergy has been associated with the use of skin preparations containing peanut oil among children, but the evidence is not regarded as conclusive.[45] Peanut allergies have also been associated with family history and intake of soy products.[45]
Someschool districts in the US and elsewhere have banned peanuts or products containing peanuts.[46][47][48] However, the efficacy of the bans in reducing allergic reactions is uncertain. A 2015 study in Canada found no difference in the percentage of accidental exposures occurring in schools prohibiting peanuts compared to schools allowing them.[49]
Refined peanut oil will not cause allergic reactions in most people with peanut allergies.[50] However, crude (unrefined) peanut oils have been shown to contain protein, which may cause allergic reactions.[51] In a randomized,double-blindcrossover study, 60 people with proven peanut allergy were challenged with both crude peanut oil and refined peanut oil. The authors concluded, "Crude peanut oil caused allergic reactions in 10% of allergic subjects studied and should continue to be avoided." They also stated, "Refined peanut oil does not seem to pose a risk to most people with peanut allergy." However, they point out that refined peanut oil can still pose a risk to peanut-allergic individuals if the oil that has previously been used for cooking foods containing peanuts is reused.[52]
Some studies show that regular consumption of peanuts is associated with a lower specific risk ofmortality from certain diseases.[55][13] However, thestudy designs do not allowcause and effect to be inferred. According to the USFood and Drug Administration, "Scientific evidence suggests but does not prove that eating 1.5 ounces per day of most nuts (such as peanuts) as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol may reduce the risk of heart disease."[56]
Dry-roasting peanuts is a common form of preparation. Dry peanuts can be roasted in the shell or shelled in a home oven if spread out one layer deep in a pan and baked at a temperature of 177 °C (351 °F) for 15 to 20 min (shelled) and 20 to 25 min (in shell).
Boiled peanuts are a popular snack in India, China, West Africa, and the southern United States. In the US South, boiled peanuts are often prepared in briny water and sold in streetside stands.
A distinction can be drawn between raw and green peanuts. A green peanut is a term to describe farm-fresh harvested peanuts that have not been dehydrated. They are available from grocery stores, food distributors, and farmers markets during the growing season. Raw peanuts are also uncooked but have been dried/dehydrated and must be rehydrated before boiling (usually in a bowl full of water overnight). Once rehydrated, the raw peanuts are ready to be boiled.[57]
Peanut oil is often used in cooking because it has a mild flavor and a relatively highsmoke point. Due to its highmonounsaturated content, it is considered more healthful thansaturated oils and is resistant torancidity. The several types of peanut oil include aromatic roasted peanut oil, refined peanut oil, extra virgin or cold-pressed peanut oil, and peanut extract. Refined peanut oil is exempt from allergen labeling laws in the US.[58]
A common cooking andsalad oil, peanut oil is 46% monounsaturated fats (primarilyoleic acid), 32%polyunsaturated fats (primarilylinoleic acid), and 17% saturated fats (primarilypalmitic acid) (source in nutrition table).[59] Extractable from whole peanuts using a simple water andcentrifugation method, the oil is being considered byNASA's Advanced Life Support program for future long-duration humanspace missions.[60]
Peanut butter is a foodpaste orspread made fromgrounddry roasted peanuts. It often contains additional ingredients that modify the taste or texture, such as salt, sweeteners, oremulsifiers. Many companies have added twists on traditionally plain peanut butter by adding various flavor varieties, such as chocolate, birthday cake, and cinnamon raisin.[61] Peanut butter is served as a spread on bread, toast or crackers, and used to make sandwiches (notably thepeanut butter and jelly sandwich). It is also used in a number of confections, such as peanut-flavoredgranola bars or croissants and other pastries. The United States[62] is a leading exporter of peanut butter, and itself consumes $800 million of peanut butter annually.[63]
Peanut protein concentrates and isolates are commercially produced from defatted peanut flour using several methods. Peanut flour concentrates (about 70% protein) are produced fromdehulled kernels by removing most of the oil and the water-soluble, non-protein components.Hydraulic pressing,screw pressing,solvent extraction, and pre-pressing followed by solvent extraction may be used for oil removal, after which protein isolation and purification are implemented.[64]
Peanuts are particularly common inPeruvian andMexican cuisine, both of which marry indigenous and European ingredients. For instance, in Peru, a popular traditional dish ispicante de cuy,[65] a roastedguinea pig served in a sauce of ground peanuts (ingredients native to South America) with roasted onions and garlic (ingredients from European cuisine). Also, in the Peruvian city ofArequipa, a dish calledocopa consists of a smooth sauce of roasted peanuts andhot peppers (both native to the region) with roasted onions, garlic, and oil, poured over meat or potatoes.[66] Another example is africassee combining a similar mixture with sautéed seafood or boiled and shredded chicken. These dishes are generally known asajíes, meaning "hot peppers", such asají de pollo andají de mariscos (seafoodajíes may omit peanuts). In Mexico, it is also used to prepare different traditional dishes, such as chicken in peanut sauce (encacahuatado), and is used as the main ingredient for the preparation of other famous dishes such as redpipián,mole poblano and oaxacanmole negro.[67]
Likewise, during colonial times in Peru, the Spanish used peanuts to replace nuts unavailable locally but used extensively inSpanish cuisine, such as almonds and pine nuts, typically ground or as a paste mixed with rice, meats, and vegetables for dishes like ricepilaf.
Throughout the region, many candies and snacks are made using peanuts. In Mexico, it is common to find them in different presentations as a snack or candy: salty,"Japanese" peanuts,praline,enchilados or in the form of a traditional sweet made with peanuts and honey calledpalanqueta, and even as peanutmarzipan. There is a similar form of peanut candy in Brazil, calledpé-de-moleque, made with peanuts andmolasses, which resembles the Indianchikki in form.[68]
Crunchy coated peanuts, calledkabukim in Hebrew, are a popular snack inIsrael.Kabukim are commonly sold by weight at corner stores where fresh nuts and seeds are sold, though they are also available packaged. The coating typically consists of flour, salt, starch, lecithin, and sometimes sesame seeds. The origin of the name is obscure (it may be derived fromkabuk, which means nutshell or husk in Turkish). An additional variety of crunchy coated peanuts popular in Israel is "American peanuts". The coating of this variety is thinner but harder to crack.
Bamba puffs are a popular snack in Israel. Their shape is similar toCheez Doodles, but they are made of peanuts and corn.
Southeast Asia
Fried peanuts in the Philippines
Peanuts are also widely used inSoutheast Asian cuisine, such as inMalaysia,Vietnam, andIndonesia, where they are typically made into a spicysauce. Peanuts came to Indonesia from thePhilippines, where the legume was derived from Mexico during Spanish colonization. One Philippine dish using peanuts iskare-kare, a mixture of meat and peanut butter. Apart from being used in dishes, fried shelled peanuts are a common inexpensive snack in the Philippines. The peanuts are commonly served plain salted with garlic chips and variants, includingadobo and chili flavors.
Common Indonesian peanut-based dishes includegado-gado,pecel,karedok, andketoprak, vegetable salads mixed with peanut sauce, and the peanut-based sauce,satay.
Indian subcontinent
Boiled groundnuts (peanuts)
In theIndian subcontinent, peanuts are a light snack, usually roasted and salted (sometimes with the addition ofchilli powder), and often sold roasted in pods or boiled with salt. They are also made into dessert or sweet snack ofpeanut brittle by processing with refined sugar andjaggery. Indian cuisine uses roasted, crushed peanuts to give a crunchy body to salads; they are added whole (without pods) to leafy vegetable stews for the same reason. Another use ispeanut oil for cooking. Most Indians usemustard,sunflower, and peanut oil for cooking. InSouth India, groundnutchutney is eaten withdosa andidli as breakfast. Peanuts are also used in sweets and savory items in South India and also as a flavor intamarind rice.Kovilpatti is known for its sweet peanut chikki orpeanut brittle, which is also used in savory and sweet mixtures, such asBombay mix.
West Africa
Peanuts grow well in southernMali and adjacent regions of theIvory Coast,Burkina Faso,Ghana,Nigeria, andSenegal; peanuts are similar in both agricultural and culinary qualities to theBambara groundnut native to the region, and West Africans have adopted the crop as a staple.Peanut sauce, prepared with onions, garlic, peanut butter/paste, and vegetables such as carrots, cabbage, and cauliflower, can be vegetarian (the peanuts supplying ample protein) or prepared with meat, usually chicken.
Peanuts are used in theMalian meat stewmaafe. In Ghana, peanut butter is used forpeanut butter soupnkate nkwan.[69] Crushed peanuts may also be used for peanut candiesnkate cake andkuli-kuli, as well as other local foods such asoto.[69] Peanut butter is an ingredient in Nigeria's "African salad". Peanut powder is an important ingredient in the spicy coating forkebabs (Suya) inNigeria and Ghana.
Peanut plant
East Africa
Peanuts are a common ingredient of several types of relishes (dishes which accompanynshima) eaten inMalawi, and in the eastern part ofZambia, and these dishes are common throughout both countries. Thick peanut butter sauces are also made inUganda to serve with rice and other starchy foods. Groundnutstew, calledebinyebwa inLuganda-speaking areas of Uganda, is made by boilingground peanut flour with other ingredients, such ascabbage,mushrooms, dried fish, meat or other vegetables.[70] Across East Africa, roasted peanuts, often in cones of newspaper, are obtained fromstreet vendors.
North America
Fried curry peanuts
The state of Georgia leads the US in peanut production, with 49 percent of the nation's peanut acreage and output. In 2014, farmers cultivated 591,000 acres of peanuts, yielding of 2.4 billion pounds. The most famous peanut farmer wasJimmy Carter ofSumter County, Georgia, who became US president in 1976.[71]
In the US and Canada, peanuts are used in candies, cakes, cookies, and other sweets. Individually, they are eatendry-roasted with or without salt. Ninety-five percent of Canadians eat peanuts or peanut butter, with the average consumption of3 kilograms (6+1⁄2 lb) of peanuts per person annually, and 79% of Canadians consume peanut butter weekly.[72] In the United States, peanuts and peanut butter are central to American dietary practices, and are typically considered ascomfort foods.[73] Peanuts were sold at fairs or by pushcart operators through the 19th century.[74] Peanut butter is a common peanut-based food, representing half of the American total peanut consumption and $850 million in annual retail sales.[75]Peanut soup is found on restaurant menus in the southeastern states.[76] In some southern portions of the US, peanuts are boiled for several hours until soft and moist.[77] Peanuts are alsodeep-fried, sometimes within the shell. Per person, Americans eat 2.7 kg (6 lb) of peanut products annually, spending a total of $2 billion in peanut retail purchases.[75]
Manufacturing
Industrial
Peanuts have a variety of industrial end uses. Paint, varnish, lubricating oil, leather dressings, furniture polish, insecticides, andnitroglycerin are made from peanut oil. Soap is made fromsaponified oil, and many cosmetics contain peanut oil and its derivatives. The protein portion is used in the manufacture of some textile fibers. Peanut shells are used in the manufacture of plastic, wallboard, abrasives, fuel, cellulose (used inrayon and paper), andmucilage (glue).
Peanuts can be used like other legumes and grains to make alactose-free,milk-like beverage,peanut milk, which is promoted in Africa as a way to reduce malnutrition among children.
Peanut plant tops and crop residues can be used forsilage.[81]
The protein cake (oilcake meal) residue from oil processing is used as animal feed and soil fertilizer.Groundnut cake is a livestock feed, mostly used by cattle as protein supplements.[82] It is one of the most important and valuable feeds for all types of livestock and one of the most active ingredients for poultry rations.[83] Poor storage of the cake may sometimes result in its contamination byaflatoxin, a naturally occurringmycotoxin that is produced byAspergillus flavus andAspergillus parasiticus.[84] The major constituents of the cake are essentialamino acids such aslysine andglutamine. Other components are crude fiber, crude protein, and fat.[citation needed]
Some peanuts can also be fed whole to livestock, for example, those over the peanut quota in the US or those with a higher aflatoxin content than that permitted by the food regulations.[85]
Peanut processing often requires dehulling: the hulls generated in large amounts by the peanut industries can feed livestock, particularlyruminants.[86]
Gallery
Roasted Peanuts with shell
A warning sign for the presence of peanuts and peanut dust
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