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Pashto phonology

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(Redirected fromPashto Phonology)

This article containsphonetic transcriptions in theInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA. For the distinction between[ ],/ / and ⟨ ⟩, seeIPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

Amongst theIranian languages, thephonology ofPashto is of middle complexity,[quantify] but itsmorphology is very complex.[1]

Consonants

[edit]
Consonant phonemes of Pashto[2]
LabialDental/
alveolar		Post-
alveolar		RetroflexPalatalVelarUvularGlottal
Nasalmnɳŋ1
Plosivepbt̪d̪ʈɖkɡ(q)2
Affricatet͡s3d͡z3t͡ʃd͡ʒ
Fricative(f)2szʃʒ4ʂ5ʐ5(çʝ)x6ɣh
Approximantlɽ7jw
Rhoticr8
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1. Thevoiced velar nasal/ŋ/ is not represented by a separate letter in the Pashto alphabet, but naturally occurs as an allophonic variant of thevoiced alveolar nasal/n/ beforevelar consonants.
2. Thevoiceless uvular plosive/q/ (ق) and thevoiceless labiodental fricative/f/ (ف) primarily appear in loanwords borrowed fromPersian ofArabic origin. In Pashto, the former tends to be replaced with thevoiceless velar plosive/k/ or thevoiceless velar fricative/x/, and the latter tends to be replaced with thevoiceless labiodental plosive/p/.
3. Thevoiced/d͡z/ (ځ) andvoiceless alveolar affricates/t͡s/ (څ) remain in theKandahar (Southwestern) andQuetta (Southeastern) dialects, as well as among majority of the Karlani dialects. In theDerajat region, these respectfully tend to be simplified to thevoiced/d͡ʒ/ andvoiced palato-alveolar sibilant affricates/t͡ʃ/. Whereas in the Northwestern and Northeastern Dialects, they are simplified to thevoiced/z/ andvoiceless alveolar fricatives/s/.
4. Thevoiced postalveolar fricative/ʒ/ (ژ) exists within the majority of Pashto dialects, but changes to thevoiced alveolar fricative/z/ in theDerajat region and the Northwestern Dialect, and to thevoiced palato-alveolar sibilant affricate/d͡ʒ/ in the Northeastern Dialect, specifically inPeshawar andSwat.
5. The Pashto letters (ږ) and (ښ) have the most variation in pronunciations; from the archaicKandahar (Southwestern)voiced/ʐ/ andvoiceless retroflex sibilant fricatives/ʂ/,[3][4] which had shifted to thevoiced/ʝ/ andvoiceless palatal fricatives/ç/ in the Northwestern Dialect,[5][6] and from it to thevoiced velar plosive/g/ (through phonological fortition/stop reinforcement) and thevoiceless velar fricative/x/ in the Northeastern Dialect.[7][8] On the other hand, it got simplified to thevoiced/ʒ/ andvoiceless postalveolar fricatives/ʃ/, specificlally in theQuetta (Southeastern) andDerajat Dialects.
6. The Pashto letter (خ) is mostly pronounced as avoiceless velar fricative/x/, and as avoiceless uvular fricative/χ/ in some accents of the Northeastern Dialect, particularly in the regions ofPeshawar andSwat.
7. The Pashto letter (ړ) is avoiced retroflex flap/ɽ/ most of the time, but tends to be alateral flap/𝼈/ at the beginning of a syllable or other prosodic unit, and a regular flap orapproximant/ɻ/ elsewhere.[9][10]
8.The Pashto letter (ر) is pronounced with avoiced alveolar trill/r/ when it is typically used at the beginning of a syllable, and thevoiced alveolar tap or flap/ɾ/ is pronounced in between vowels and in word-end position.

  • Voiceless stops and affricates/p,t,ʈ,t͡s,t͡ʃ,k/ are allunaspirated; they have slightlyaspirated allophones prevocalically in a stressed syllable, almost likeEnglish.

Dialects

[edit]
See also:Pashto dialects
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Dialectal allophones represented byښ andږ. The retroflex variants[ʂ,ʐ] are used in the southwestern dialects, whereas the post-alveolar variants[ʃ,ʒ] are used in southeastern dialects. The palatal variants[ç,ʝ] are used in the Wardak and Central Ghilji dialects. In the northeastern dialects,ښ andږ merge with the velar[x,g].

Dropping of /h/ (in dialects)
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Phonotactics

[edit]

Pashto syllable structure can be summarized as follows; parentheses enclose optional components:

  • (C1 C2 (C3)) (S1) V (S2) (C4 (C5))

Pashtosyllable structure consists of an optional syllable onset, consisting of one or two consonants; an obligatory syllable nucleus, consisting of a vowel optionally preceded by and/or followed by asemivowel; and an optional syllable coda, consisting of one or two consonants. The following restrictions apply:

  • Onset
    • First consonant (C1): Can be any consonant, including a liquid (/l,r/).
    • Second consonant (C2): Can be any consonant.
    • Third consonant (C3): Can be any consonant. (see#Consonant Clusters below)
  • Nucleus
    • Semivowel (S1)
    • Vowel (V)
    • Semivowel (S2)
  • Coda
    • First consonant (C4): Can be any consonant
    • Second consonant (C5): Can be any consonant

Consonant clusters

[edit]

Pashto has a lot of word-initialconsonant clusters in all dialects; some hundred such clusters occurs. However, there is no consonant gemination.[11]

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Examples
Two consonant clusters/tl/,/kl/,/bl/,/ɣl/,/lm/,/nm/,/lw/,/sw/,/br/,/tr/,/ɣr/,/pr/,/dr/,/wr/,/kɽ/,/mɽ/,/wɽ//xp/,/pʃ/,/pʂ/,/xr/,/zb/,/zɽ/,/ʒb/,/d͡zm/,/md͡z/,/t͡sk/,/sk/,/sp/,/ʃp/,/ʂk/,/xk/,/ʃk/,/kʃ/,/kx/,/kʂ/,/ml/,/gr/,/gm/ and/ʐm/etc.
Three consonant clusters/sxw/,/xwɽ/,/xwl/,/nɣw/etc.

Examples

[edit]

An edited[note 1] list from the book Pashto Phonology by M.K. Khan:[12]

IPAMeaning
V[o]'was' (dialectal)و
VC[as]'horse'اس
VCC[aɾt̪]'loose'ارت
CV[t̪ə]'you'ته
CVC[ɖeɾ]'many, very'ډېر
CVCC[lund̪]'wet'لوند
CCV[mlɑ]backملا
CCVC[klak]'hard'کلک
CCVCC[ʒwənd̪]'life'ژوند
CCCV[ˈxʷlə]'mouth'خوله
CCCVC[nd̪ɾoɾ]'sister-in-law'ندرور
CCCVCC[ʃxʷand̪]'chewing [of food]'شخوند

Vowels

[edit]

Most dialects in Pashto have seven vowels and seven diphthongs.[13]

FrontCentralBack
Closeiu
Mideəo
Openaɑ
  • Tegey & Robson (1996) also include near-close vowels /ɪ/ and /ʊ/.[14]

Prehistory

[edit]

There are many complexities on the development fromProto-Iranian into the modern Pashto vowel inventory (romanization will be used here):[15]

  • *a >ā/ɑ/ in a stressed closed syllable (lā́s <*jásta- 'hand')
    • ā >o beforew (owə́ <*haftá) or if there isu orw in the next syllable (pox <*paxwá-); sometimes also in adjectives (corb <*čarpá)

Diphthongs

[edit]
FrontCentralBack
Closeuɪ
Midəɪoɪ
Openaɪ,aʊɑɪ,ɑʊ

Elfenbein notes that the long diphthongs [ɑi,ɑw] are always stressed, whilst the short diphthongs may or may not be stressed.[16]

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Orthography of diphthongs

[edit]
InitialMedialFinal
aɪایَيـَی
əɪۍ andئ
oɪاویويـوی
uɪاویويـوی
aʊاوَوَو
ɑɪآيايای
ɑʊآواواو

Stress

[edit]

Pashto has phonemic variable stress,[17] unique amongst Iranian languages.[11]

For instance, in verbs to distinguish aspect:

Imperfective verb

(mostly final stress)

MeaningPerfective verb

(initial stress)

Meaning
[kenɑstə́ləm]'I was sitting'[kénɑstələm]'I sat down'
[kenɑstə́m]'I was sitting'[kénɑstəm]'I sat down'
[bakenə́m]'I shall be sitting'[bakénəm]'I shall sit'
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Basic word stress

[edit]

Stress is indicated by the IPA stress marker [ˈ].

In general, the last syllable is stressed if the word ends in a consonant, and the penultimate syllable is stressed if the last syllable ends in a vowel.[18]

ExampleIPAMeaning
رنځور[ranˈd͡zuɾ]'sick'(adj. masc.)
رنځوره[ranˈd͡zura]'sick'(adj. fem.)
کورونه[koˈruna]'houses'(n. masc. pl.)
ښځو[ˈʂəd͡zo]'women'(n. fem. pl. obl.)
لاندې[ˈlɑnd̪e]'below'(adv. circumpos.)
ځمکپوهنه[d͡zmək.poˈhəna]'geography'(n. fem.)

Masculine words ending in "ə"

[edit]

These have final stress generally.[19]

ExampleIPAMeaning
تېره[t̪eˈrə]'sharp'(adj.)
لېوه[leˈwə]'wolf'(n.)

Feminine words ending in "o"

[edit]

These end in a stressed /o/.[20][21]

ExampleIPAMeaning
بيزو[biˈzo]'monkey'
پيشو[piˈʃo]'cat'
ورشو[waɾˈʃo]'meadow, pasture'

Wordings ending in aleph

[edit]

Words ending in IPA /ɑ/ i.e.ا are stressed in the last syllable.

ExampleIPAMeaning
اشنا[aʃˈnɑ]'familiar'(n. masc.)
رڼا[raˈɳɑ]'light'(n. fem.)

Exceptions

[edit]
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Word meanings also change upon stress.

WordIPAMeaning 1IPAMeaning 2
جوړه[ˈd͡ʒoɽa]'well'[d͡ʒoˈɽa]'pair'
اسپه[ˈaspa]'mare'[asˈpa]'spotted fever'

Intonation

[edit]

Questions

[edit]
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WH-Questions (who, where, when, etc.) follow a hat pattern of intonation: a rise in pitch followed by a fall in pitch.[22]

تاسو چېرته کار کوئ
[tɑ́so↗tʃértakɑrkawə́ɪ↘]

Yes/No-Questions end in a high intonation: a rise in pitch.

غنم يې ورېبل؟
[ɣanə́mjewә́rebəl↗]

Contrastive focus

[edit]

When a word is contrasted with another word it carries a low then high pitch accent, followed by a sharp fall in pitch accent.

نه له د نه کشر يم
[na↘lə↗dənəkə́ʃərjə́m↘]

Dialectal phonology

[edit]

Consonants

[edit]

This diagram is based on Anna Boyle's division of the dialect variations on geographic regions:[23]

Dialectښږڅځژ
Southwestern dialects e.g.,Sharkhbun dialects (Kandahar–Herat, southwestern Afghanistan)ʂʐt͡sd͡zʒ
Southeastern dialects e.g.,Ghurghusht andLodi dialects (Quetta–Zhob andDera Ismail Khan–Bannu, southwesternPakistan)ʃʒt͡s(in Ghurghusht dialect)

t͡ʃ(inLodi dialect)		d͡z(in Ghurghusht dialect)

d͡ʒ(inLodi dialect)		ʒ(in Ghurghusht dialect)

z(inLodi dialect)
Central dialects – Karlani dialects (Paktika–Tirah, southeasternAfghanistan and westernPakistan)ç(in Zadrani)

ɕ(in Waziri)		ʝ(in Zadrani)

ʑ(in Waziri)		t͡sd͡zʒ
Northwestern dialects e.g., Wardak and Ghilji dialects (Zabul–Maidan Wardak, northwesternAfghanistan)[24]çʝs andt͡sz andd͡zʒ andz
Northeastern dialects e.g., Kharshbun dialects (Kabul–Kunar andSwat–Peshawar, northeasternAfghanistan and northwesternPakistan)xɡszʒ(in northeastern Afghanistan)

d͡ʒ(in northwestern Pakistan)

Regional variation

[edit]

This diagram, however, does not factor in the regional variations within the broad geographic areas. Compare the following consonant and vowel differences amongst regions categorised as northern dialects:[24]

ښه يمه (in northern dialects)
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Northern dialects
MeaningWardakJalalabadBati Kot
دوی'they'[deɪ̯][ˈduwi][ˈduwi]
راکړه'give'(imperative of راکول)[ˈrɑka][ˈrɑka][ˈrɑkɽa]
پوهېدل'to know'[pijeˈd̪əl][pojeˈd̪əl][pojiˈd̪əl]
شپږ'six'[ʃpaʝ][ʃpag][ʃpiʒ]
وريځ'cloud'[wəɾˈjed͡z][wɾez][wəˈred͡z]
ښځه'woman'[ˈçəd͡za][ˈxəza]
اوبه'water'[ˈobə][ˈubə][ˈobə]

Or the difference in vowels and diphthongs in North Eastern Pashto:

MeaningSwatPeshawar
ودرېږه'stop'(imperative of درېدل)['wəd̪ɾega][ˈod̪ɾega]
جنۍ'girl'[d͡ʒiˈnəɪ̯][d͡ʒiˈnɛ]

Alveolo-palatal fricative

[edit]

Rozi Khan Burki claims that theOrmuri alveolo-palatal fricative[ɕ] and[ʑ] may also be present in Waziri.[25] But Pashto linguists such as Josef Elfenbein, Anna Boyle or Yousaf Khan Jazab have not noted this in Waziri Phonology.[26][27][28]

Vowels

[edit]

Waziri vowels

[edit]
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FrontCentralBack
UnroundedRounded
Closeiu
Midɛœəɔ
Near-Openæ
Openaɒ
Vowel shift
[edit]

Corey Miller notes that the shift does not affect all words.[29]

In theWaziri dialect,[ɑ] in Standard Pashto becomes[ɔː] in northern Waziri and[ɒː] in southern Waziri.[30]

MeaningStandard PashtoN. WazirwolaS. Wazirwola
ماسته'yogurt'[mɑsˈt̪ə][mɔːsˈt̪ə][mɒːsˈt̪ə]
پاڼه'leaf'[pɑˈɳa][ˈpɔːɳjɛː][ˈpɒːɳjɛː]

In theWaziri dialect, the stressed[o] in Standard Pashto becomes[œː] and[ɛː]. The[o] in Standard Pashto may also begin with a glide:[jɛ],[wɛː].[30]

MeaningStandard PashtoWazirwola
لور'sickle'[loɾ][lœːɾ]
وړه'flour'[ˈoɽə][ˈɛːɽə]
اوږه'shoulder'[ˈoga][ˈ(j)ɛʒa]
اوس'now'[os][wɛːs]

In theWaziri dialect, stressed[u] in Standard Pashto becomes[iː].[31]

MeaningStandard PashtoWazirwola
موږ'we'[muɡ][miːʒ]
نوم'navel'[num][niːm]

When[u] begins a word in Standard Pashto, it can become[jiː] or w[ɛ].

MeaningStandard PashtoWazirwola
اوم'raw'[um][jiːm]
اوږه'garlic'[ˈuɡa][ˈjiːʒa]
اوده'asleep'[ˈud̪ə][wɜˈd̪ə]

Elfenbein also notes the presence of the near-open vowel[æ].[32]

Apridi vowels

[edit]
Apridi vowel
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Apridi has the additional close-mid central rounded vowel[ɵ].[33]

Diphthongs in dialects

[edit]

The diphthongs varies according to dialect.[34]

Standard pronunciationApridiYusupzai[35]WaziriMohmandBaniswola/Bannuchi[36]Wanetsi
aɪʌɪ
ʌː		eaɪɑa
ˈaɪˈaɪˈeæɪˈɑːiˈa
ˈəɪˈijeˈəɪˈəɪ

ˈe[37]

ˈijeˈi
oɪwaɪweoːi
œːi		eːi
uɪui,wiˈojəi
awaoow,aːw
ɑiɑeˈɑːi
ɑwɑooːw

Yousaf Khan Jazab notes that the diphthong /əɪ/ becomes /oi/ in the Khattak Dialect in the verbal suffix /ئ/,[38] but it remains as the diphthong /əɪ/ in the nominal/adjectival /ۍ/ example:مړۍ[maˈɽəɪ̯] 'meal'.[39]

Nasalisation of vowels

[edit]
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See also:Wanetsi § Nasalisation

As noted by Yousaf Khan Jazab, the Marwat and Bansiwola dialects havenasalised vowels also.[40] It is also noted in the Waṇetsi/Tarin dialect.

These are indicated by the diacritic mark/̃/.

StandardMarwatMeaning
بوی[buɪ̯]بویں[buĩ]'smell'

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^With some corrected IPA for words mentioned therein . Sources of correction: Kaye (1997), Zeeya Pashtoon (2009) and Qamosona.com

References

[edit]
  1. ^Elfenbein (1997), p. 736.
  2. ^Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 15.
  3. ^Michael M.T. Henderson,Four Varieties of Pashto
  4. ^Morgenstierne, Georg (2003).A New Etymological Vocabulary of Pashto. Reichert. pp. vii–viii.ISBN 978-3-89500-364-6.
  5. ^David (2014), p. 9.
  6. ^David (2014), p. 35.
  7. ^MacKenzie, D. N."A Standard Pashto".Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies.22:232–233. Archived from the original on October 24, 2005.
  8. ^Gawarjon (高尔锵/Gāo Ěrqiāng) (1985).Outline of the Tajik language (塔吉克语简志/Tǎjíkèyǔ Jiǎnzhì). Beijing: Nationalities Publishing House.
  9. ^D.N. MacKenzie, 1990, "Pashto", in Bernard Comrie, ed,The major languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa, p. 103
  10. ^Herbert Penzl, 1965,A reader of Pashto, p 7
  11. ^abElfenbein (1997), p. 737.
  12. ^Khan, Muhammad Kamal (2020-04-08).Pashto Phonology: An Evaluation of the Relationship between Syllable Structure and Word Order. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 56–57.ISBN 978-1-5275-4925-8.
  13. ^David (2014), p. 11.
  14. ^Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 17.
  15. ^Cheung, Johnny (2011)."Selected Pashto Problems II. Historical Phonology 1: On Vocalism and Etyma".Iran and the Caucasus.15 (1–2):169–205.doi:10.1163/157338411X12870596615557.
  16. ^Elfenbein (1997), p. 751.
  17. ^Bečka, Jiří (1969).A Study in Pashto Stress. Academia.
  18. ^Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 25.
  19. ^David, Anne Boyle (2015-06-16).Descriptive Grammar of Bangla (in German). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. pp. 56 and 109.ISBN 978-1-5015-0083-1.
  20. ^Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 56.
  21. ^David (2014), p. 68.
  22. ^"Pashto Intonation Patterns".Interspeech 2017.
  23. ^David (2014), pp. 31–34.
  24. ^abCoyle 2014.
  25. ^"Dying Languages: Special Focus on Ormuri".Pakistan Journal of Public Administration. 6. No. 2. December 2001. Archived from the original on September 3, 2012.
  26. ^Elfenbein (1997), pp. 740–749.
  27. ^David (2014), pp. 37–40.
  28. ^Jazab (2017), pp. 69–70.
  29. ^Miller, Corey (2014-05-12)."The Waziri Chain Shift".Journal of Persianate Studies.7 (1): 125.doi:10.1163/18747167-12341267.ISSN 1874-7167.
  30. ^abElfenbein (1997), p. 748.
  31. ^Elfenbein (1997), p. 749.
  32. ^Elfenbein (1997), p. 746.
  33. ^Elfenbein (1997), pp. 740, 750–751.
  34. ^Elfenbein (1997), pp. 751–753.
  35. ^Rensch, Calvin Ross (1992).Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan: Pashto, Waneci, Ormuri. National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University. pp. 79–146.
  36. ^Jazab (2017), pp. 64–65.
  37. ^Jazab (2020), p. 189.
  38. ^Jazab (2020), pp. 187–188.
  39. ^Jazab (2017), p. 65.
  40. ^Jazab (2017), pp. 60–61.

Bibliography

[edit]
A–E
F–L
M–S
T–Z
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