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Theparables of Jesus are found in theSynoptic Gospels and some of thenon-canonical gospels. They form approximately one third of his recorded teachings.Christians place great emphasis on theseparables, which they generally regard as the words ofJesus.[1][2]
Jesus's parables are seemingly simple and memorable stories, often with imagery, and all teach a lesson in daily life. Scholars have commented that although these parables seem simple, the messages they convey are deep, and central to the teachings of Jesus. Christian authors view them not as mere similitudes that serve the purpose of illustration, but as internalanalogies in which nature becomes a witness for thespiritual world.[3]
Many of Jesus's parables refer to simple everyday things, such as a woman baking bread (theparable of the Leaven), a man knocking on his neighbor's door at night (theparable of the Friend at Night), or the aftermath of a roadsidemugging (theparable of the Good Samaritan); yet they deal with major religious themes, such as the growth of theKingdom of God, the importance of prayer, and the meaning oflove.
In Western civilization, these parables formed theprototype for the termparable and in the modern age, even among those who know little of theBible, the parables of Jesus remain some of the best-known stories in the world.[4]
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As a translation of the Hebrew wordמָשָׁל,mashal, the wordparable can also refer to a riddle. At all times in their history the Jews were familiar with teaching by means ofparables and a number of parables also exist in theOld Testament.The use of parables by Jesus was hence a natural teaching method that fit into the tradition of his time.[5]Tom Wright observes that his parables are similar to thedreams recounted in the Old Testament, which are presented "in search of meanings".[6] The parables of Jesus have been quoted, taught, and discussed since the verybeginnings of Christianity.
Parables are one of the many literary forms in the Bible, but are especially seen in the gospels of the New Testament. Parables are generally considered to be short stories such as theGood Samaritan, and are differentiated from metaphorical statements such as, "You are the salt of the earth." A true parable may be regarded as an extended simile.[7]Adolf Jülicher viewed parables as extended metaphors with a picture part (Bildhälfte), a reality part (Sachhälfte), and a point of comparison (tertium comparationis) between the picture part and the reality part.[8] For example, the following parable in Luke 7:31–32 illustrates Jülicher's approach to parables:
To what then will I compare the people of this generation, and what are they like? They are like children sitting in the marketplace and calling to one another: "We played the flute for you, and you did not dance; we wailed, and you did not weep."[9]
Although some suggest parables are essentially extendedallegories, others emphatically argue the opposite.[10] Dr. Kenneth Boa states that "Parables are extended figures of comparison that often use short stories to teach a truth or answer a question. While the story in a parable is not historical, it is true to life, not a fairy tale. As a form of oral literature, the parable exploits realistic situations but makes effective use of the imagination... Some of the parables [of Christ] were designed to reveal mysteries to those on the inside and to conceal the truth to those on the outside who would not hear."[11]
The threesynoptic gospels contain the parables of Jesus. There are a growing number of scholars who also find parables in theGospel of John, such as the little stories of theGood Shepherd (John 10:1–5) or the childbearing woman (John 16:21).[a] Otherwise,John includesallegories but no parables. Several authors such as Barbara Reid, Arland Hultgren or Donald Griggs comment that "parables are noticeably absent from the Gospel of John".[12][13][14][b]
William Barry states in theCatholic Encyclopedia (1913) "There are no parables in St. John's Gospel. In the Synoptics [...] we reckon thirty-three in all; but some have raised the number even to sixty, by including proverbial expressions".[15] TheGospel of Luke contains both the largest total number of parables (24) and eighteen unique parables; theGospel of Matthew contains 23 parables of which eleven are unique; and theGospel of Mark contains eight parables of which two are unique.
InHarmony of the Gospels, Cox and Easley provide aGospel harmony for the parables based on the following counts: only in Matthew: 11; only in Mark: 2; only in Luke: 18; Matthew and Luke: 4; Matthew, Mark and Luke: 6. They list no parables for the Gospel of John.[16]
Parables attributed to Jesus are also found in other documents apart from the Bible. Some of these overlap those in the canonical gospels and some are not part of the Bible. The non-canonicalGospel of Thomas contains up to fifteen parables, eleven of which have parallels in the fourcanonical Gospels. The unknown author of the Gospel of Thomas did not have a special word for 'parable', making it difficult to know what they considered a parable.[17][c] Those unique to Thomas include theParable of the Assassin and theParable of the Empty Jar.
The noncanonicalApocryphon of James also contains three unique parables attributed to Jesus.[18] They are known as "The Parable of the Ear of Grain", "The Parable of the Grain of Wheat", and "The Parable of the Date-Palm Shoot".[19]
The hypotheticalQ document is seen as a source for some of the parables in Matthew, Luke, and Thomas.[20]
In theGospel of Matthew (13:10–17) Jesus provides an answer when asked about his use of parables:[21]
Then his disciples asked him what this parable meant. He said, "To you it has been given to know the secrets of the kingdom of God; but to others I speak in parables, so that 'looking they may not perceive, and listening they may not understand.'"
— Luke 8:9–10,New Revised Standard Version[22]
While Mark 4:33–34[23] and Matthew 13:34–35[24] may suggest that Jesus would only speak to the "crowds" in parables, while in private explaining everything to his disciples, some modern scholars do not support the private explanations argument and surmise that Jesus used parables as a teaching method.[25] Dwight Pentecost suggests that given that Jesus often preached to a mixed audience of believers and non-believers, he used parables to reveal the truth to some, but hide it from others.[1]
The Anglican bishop of Montreal,Ashton Oxenden, suggests that Jesus constructed his parables based on his divine knowledge of how man can be taught:
This was a mode of teaching, which our blessed Lord seemed to take special delight in employing. And we may be quite sure, that as "He knew what was in man" better than we know, He would not have taught by Parables, if He had not felt that this was the kind of teaching best suited to our wants.
— Oxenden 1864, p. 1
In the 19th century, Lisco andFairbairn stated that in the parables of Jesus, "the image borrowed from the visible world is accompanied by a truth from the invisible (spiritual) world" and that the parables of Jesus are not "mere similitudes which serve the purpose of illustration, but are internal analogies where nature becomes a witness for the spiritual world".[3]
Similarly, in the 20th century, calling a parable "an earthly story with a heavenly meaning",[26] William Barclay states that the parables of Jesus use familiar examples to lead men's minds towardsheavenly concepts. He suggests that Jesus did not form his parables merely as analogies but based on an "inward affinity between the natural and the spiritual order."[26]
A number of parables that are adjacent in one or more gospels have similar themes. Theparable of the Leaven follows theparable of the Mustard Seed in Matthew and Luke, and shares the theme of theKingdom of Heaven growing from small beginnings.[27] Theparable of the Hidden Treasure andparable of the Pearl form a pair illustrating the great value of theKingdom of Heaven, and the need for action in attaining it.[28]
The parables of theLost Sheep,Lost Coin, andLost (Prodigal) Son form a trio in Luke dealing with loss and redemption.[29]
Theparable of the Faithful Servant andparable of the Ten Virgins, adjacent in Matthew, involve waiting for a bridegroom, and have aneschatological theme of being prepared for the day of reckoning.[30] Theparable of the Tares[31] theparable of the Rich Fool,[32] theparable of the budding fig tree,[33] and theparable of the barren fig tree[34] also have eschatological themes.
Other parables stand alone, such as theparable of the unforgiving servant, dealing with forgiveness;[35] theparable of the Good Samaritan, dealing with practical love;[36] and theparable of the Friend at Night, dealing with persistence in prayer.[37]
 |  |  |  |  |  |
| Sower | Hidden Treasure | Pearl | Growing Seed | Mustard Seed | Leaven |
 |  |  |
| Lost Sheep | Lost Coin | Prodigal (Lost) Son |
 |  |  |
| Good Samaritan | Two Debtors | Unforgiving Servant |
 |  |  |
| Friend at Night | Unjust Judge | Pharisee & Publican |
 |  |  |  |  |  |
| Faithful Servant | Ten Virgins | Great Banquet | Rich Fool | Wicked Husbandmen | Tares |
 |  |  | |||
| The Net | Budding Fig Tree | Barren Fig Tree |
 |  |  |  |  |  | |
| Wise & Foolish Builders | Lamp under a Bushel | Unjust Steward | Rich Man and Lazarus | Talents (Minas) | Parable of the Workers in the Vineyard |
Of the thirty or so parables in the canonical Gospels, four were shown in medieval art almost to the exclusion of the others, but not mixed in with the narrative scenes of theLife of Christ. These were: theTen Virgins, theRich man and Lazarus, theProdigal Son and theGood Samaritan.[38] Artists famous for depicting parables includeMartin Schongauer,Pieter Bruegel the Elder andAlbrecht Dürer. TheWorkers in the Vineyard also appears inEarly Medieval works. From the Renaissance, the number of parables depicted increased slightly, and the Prodigal Son became a clear favorite, appearing in various scenes, with the Good Samaritan also being popular. Albrecht Dürer made a famousengraving of the Prodigal Son among the pigs (1496), a popular subject in theNorthern Renaissance, andRembrandt depicted the story several times, although at least one of his works,The Prodigal Son in the Tavern, a portrait of himself as the Son revelling with his wife, is like many artists' depictions, a way of dignifying a genre tavern scene. His lateThe Return of the Prodigal Son (Hermitage Museum,St Petersburg) is one of his most popular works. In 1857, theBrothers Dalziel commissionedJohn Everett Millais to illustrate the parables, and his work was published in 1864 in London.[39]
As well as being depicted in art and discussed in prose, a number of parables form the inspiration for religious poetry andhymns. For example, the hymn "The Ninety and Nine" byElizabeth C. Clephane (1868) is inspired by theparable of the Lost Sheep:
There were ninety and nine that safely lay
In the shelter of the fold.
But one was out on the hills away,
Far off from the gates of gold.
Away on the mountains wild and bare.
Away from the tender Shepherd's care.
Away from the tender Shepherd's care.
Similarly, "My Hope Is Built" (Edward Mote,c. 1834) is inspired by theparable of the Wise and the Foolish Builders, and "How Kind the Good Samaritan" (John Newton,c. 1779) is inspired by theparable of the Good Samaritan.
A samplegospel harmony for the parables based on thelist of key episodes in the Canonical Gospels is presented in the table below. For the sake of consistency, this table is automatically sub-selected from the main harmony table in theGospel harmony article, based on thelist of key episodes in the Canonical Gospels. Usually, no parables are associated with theGospel of John, just allegories.[16]
A number of parables have parallels in non-canonical gospels, theDidache, and the letters ofApostolic Fathers. However, given that the non-canonical gospels generally have no time sequence, this table is not agospel harmony.
| # | Parable | Matthew | Mark | Luke | Other parallels[99][100][101] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3 | The Strong Man | Matthew 12:29[45] | Mark 3:27[46] | Luke 11:21–22[47] | Thomas 35 |
| 5 | The Sower | Matthew 13:1–23[102] | Mark 4:1–25[103] | Luke 8:4–18[104] | |
| 6 | The Growing Seed | Mark 4:26–29[55] | Thomas 21 | ||
| 7 | The Tares | Matthew 13:24–30[56] | Thomas 57 | ||
| 11 | The Rich Fool | Luke 12:16–21[59] | Thomas 63 | ||
| 13 | The Mustard Seed | Matthew 13:31–32[61] | Mark 4:30–32[62] | Luke 13:18–19[63] | Thomas 20 |
| 14 | The Leaven | Matthew 13:33[64] | Luke 13:20–21[65] | Thomas 96 | |
| 15 | The Hidden Treasure | Matthew 13:44[66] | Thomas 109 | ||
| 16 | The Pearl | Matthew 13:45[105] | Thomas 76 | ||
| 17 | Drawing in the Net | Matthew 13:47–53[106] | Thomas 8 | ||
| 20 | The Lost Sheep | Matthew 18:12–14[107] | Luke 15:1–7[108] |
| |
| 31 | The Wicked Husbandmen | Matthew 21:33–46[109] | Mark 12:1–12[110] | Luke 20:9–19[111] | Thomas 65 |
| 32 | The Great Banquet | Matthew 22:1–14[87] | Luke 14:15–24[88] | Thomas 64 | |
| 34 | The Faithful Servant | Matthew 24:42–51[92] | Mark 13:33–37[112] | Luke 12:35–48[94] | |
| 36 | The Talents or Minas | Matthew 25:14–30[96] | Luke 19:13–24[113] | Nazoraeans 18 |
| Parable Title | Matthew | Mark | Luke |
|---|---|---|---|
| The Sower | Matthew 13:3–8 | Mark 4:3–8 | Luke 8:5–8 |
| The Tares or Cockle | Matthew 13:24–30 | ||
| The Mustard Seed | Matthew 13:31–32 | Mark 4:31–32 | Luke 13:18–19 |
| The Leaven | Matthew 13:33 | Luke 13:20–21 | |
| The Hidden Treasure | Matthew 13:44 | ||
| The Pearl of Price | Matthew 13:45 | ||
| The Draw Net | Matthew 13:47–50 | ||
| The Unmerciful Servant | Matthew 18:21–35 | ||
| The Labourers in the Vineyard | Matthew 20:1–16 | ||
| The Two Sons | Matthew 21:28–32 | ||
| The Wicked Husbandmen | Matthew 21:33–45 | Mark 12:1–12 | Luke 20:9–19 |
| The Marriage of the King's Son | Matthew 12:1–14 | ||
| The Ten Virgins | Matthew 25:1–13 | ||
| The Talents | Matthew 25:14–30 | ||
| The Pounds or the Minae | Luke 19:11–27 | ||
| The Two Debtors | Luke 7:41–43 | ||
| The Good Samaritan | Luke 10:37 | ||
| The Friend at Midnight | Luke 11:5–8 | ||
| The Unjust Judge | Luke 18:1–8 | ||
| The Rich Fool | Luke 12:16–21 | ||
| Dives and Lazarus | Luke 16:19–31 | ||
| The Great Supper | Luke 14:15–24 | ||
| The Prodigal Son | Luke 15:11–32 | ||
| The Unjust Steward | Luke 16:1–9 | ||
| The Unprofitable Servants | Luke 17:7–10 | ||
| The Pharisee and the Publican | Luke 18:9–14 |
Bacher, William (1905)."Parable". InSinger, Isidore; et al. (eds.).The Jewish Encyclopedia. Vol. 9. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. pp. 512–514.
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