 Armand Lunel, last speaker ofJudeo-Provençal | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Comtat Venaissin (until 1791) | |
| Languages | |
| Judeo-Provençal | |
| Religion | |
| Judaism | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Sephardic Jews,Ashkenazi Jews |
Papal Jews,[1]Pope's Jews (French:Juifs du pape,Occitan:Jueus del Pap,Hebrew:יהודי האפיפיור,romanized: Yehudei Ha'Apifyor orHebrew:בני גולה,romanized: Bnei Gola[1]),Avignonese Jews,[2] also known by their pre-Revolution nameComtadin Jews (French:Juifs comtadins[3],Occitan:Jueus Contadièrs) lived in theComtat Venaissin and inAvignon, ceded respectively in 1274 and 1348 to theHoly See and remaining under its administration until theFrench Revolution in 1791. Along with theAlsatian Jews, they formed for several centuries one of the only twoJewish communities authorised to live on what is today French territory, but which at the time of their establishment lay outside the borders of theKingdom of France.
In the 14th century, the popes resided inAvignon, where the presence of the papal court fostered Jewish activity, despite an attempt to expel them. In 1322,John XXII expelled the Jews from Avignon and the Comtat, forcing them to take refuge inDauphiné andSavoy.[4] To complete the expulsion, the pope deemed it necessary to have the synagogues ofBédarrides,Bollène,Carpentras,Le Thor,Malaucène,Monteux, andPernes torn down. This expulsion was short-lived, as the same pope, in 1326 at theCouncil of Avignon, imposed theyellow badge (rouelle) on Jewish boys from the age of fourteen, and required girls from the age of twelve to wear a distinctive veil (cornalia orcornu).[5]
From 1326 onwards, the popes allowed Jews to reside in the Comtat and in Avignon without being persecuted, enabling many Jews from France to escape the persecutions they were facing. Moreover,Clement VI protected the Jews during the massacres linked to theBlack Death.[6] In 1394, Jews were definitively expelled from the Kingdom of France. In the Comtat Venaissin, however, Jews could continue to reside under certain conditions: wearing a yellow hat, paying additional taxes, and attending mandatory sermons aimed at converting them, among others.
At the beginning of the Holy See's administration, their situation was entirely comparable to that of otherProvençal Jews. For example, as elsewhere inProvence, many doctors were Jewish: in Avignon in 1374, there were six Jewish doctors, whose salaries were, per the 1341 council, significantly lower than those of Christian doctors. The Jewish quarter of Avignon covered no more than onehectare (2.5 acres) but housed 1,000 people in 1358.[7]
During the period of papal residence in Avignon, Jewish trade remained prosperous. Jewish merchants supplied the papal court with food, cloth, horses, perfumes, coral jewellery, and pearl rosaries. The tailor ofGregory XI was a Jew. In 1374, 87 of the city's 94 cloth merchants were Jewish. There were also a few moneylenders.
In 1492, the Jews were expelled fromSpain, butPope Alexander VI forbade them from entering Avignon and the Comtat. Then, in the early 16th century, Jews were expelled from Provence, and this time, many, particularly fromArles andTarascon, were able to seek refuge in the Comtat. Around a dozen towns and villages hosted Jewish communities at that point. InPernes-les-Fontaines, a segregation measure was adopted in 1504, requiring Jews to abandon their homes and gather in a designated "carrière" (Jewish quarter).
Although the expulsion of Jews from the Papal States in 1569 was only partially enforced, from the late 16th century onwards, Jews were obliged to settle in one of the four quarters of the Comtat—a small, clearly demarcated neighbourhood of a few streets, closed off each evening. These were theArba Kehilot, or the four holy communities[8] of Avignon, Carpentras,Cavaillon, andL'Isle-sur-la-Sorgue—named after the four holy cities of the Holy Land:Jerusalem,Hebron,Safed, andTiberias.[9]
From the 15th century, Jewish communities were administered bybailons (meaning "regent, chief, or authority figure"). These officials were responsible for their community before the authorities and handled policing duties. Taxation was based on property wealth. Jewish commercial activities, especially in textiles, faced various restrictions.
The Papal Jews were never numerous: around 2,000 in total at the start of the 16th century, and about 500 in Avignon and Carpentrasc. 1600. The ghetto of L'Isle-sur-la-Sorgue was located in acul-de-sac covering 2,500 m2 (27,000 sq ft). In these ghettos, houses were built up to 4–5 storeys to save space, often at the expense of structural safety: in Avignon in 1314, a house collapsed during a wedding celebration, killing 23 people.
Thomas Platter described the ghetto of Avignon in 1595 as nothing more than a street closed at both ends. He noted that most Jews worked as tailors, whereas in theMiddle Ages, their professions were more diverse and not distinct from those of other inhabitants of Avignon. Some were doctors or even tenant farmers. The synagogue was located in a kind of basement. Jews could only leave the ghetto during the day, and only when wearing special clothing, including ayellow hat. In Carpentras, where the ghetto was smaller and more densely populated than in Avignon, buildings could reach seven or eight storeys.
The repeated imposition of restrictive measures over the centuries—bans on practising medicine, owning property outside their quarter, trading in new goods, foodstuffs, or horses—suggests that such regulations were in practice only partially enforced. The Pope's Jews appear to have maintained good relations with their Christian neighbours. From the late 17th century onwards, some were authorised to settle in the Kingdom of France, such asIsraël Bernard de Valabrègue,[2] who became an interpreter at theRoyal Library inParis.
Along the history, an original Comtadin form ofJudaism developed, distinct from both theSephardic and theAshkenazi traditions. Though, some claim otherwise.[10] It was marked by a highly structured community organisation, strictendogamy, and a unique ritual practice. The Jews spokeJudeo-Provençal. Religious services appear to have been well attended: in the Judeo-Comtadin comedyHarcanot et Barcanot, one topic of interest among the women is who missed a prayer service:S'un tan a pas manca ni minha ni arvit ("if so-and-so didn't miss the minḥa (afternoon) or arvit (evening) prayer").[11] However, it seems that the Jewish community of L'Isle-sur-la-Sorgue had already disappeared before the French Revolution.[12]
During the 18th century, the economic situation of the Jews improved. They travelled extensively throughout southern France, with some settling semi-permanently in cities likeNîmes andMontpellier. The use of French became more widespread. In 1741, the synagogue of Carpentras was rebuilt. Though this synagogue, like that of Cavaillon, remained discreet from the outside, the new prosperity was reflected in the prayer hall, a masterpiece of Italian-style decoration and wrought ironwork. However, daily life did not reflect the increasing wealth of Jews, who were still not permitted to live outside the overcrowded quarters, where six- or seven-storey houses appeared to arriving travellers in Carpentras as virtual skyscrapers. It was only in 1784 that a café owner in Carpentras was authorised to serve Jewish customers.
With theFrench Revolution, despite some mild opposition by people likeJean-Sifrein Maury, Papal Jews became French citizens.[13] Within a few years, the quarters emptied out, even someAshkenazi Jews arrived. Jews took an active role in the revolutionary events, particularly in Nîmes, and dispersed throughout the major cities of southern France, reaching as far as Paris.[14] Dormant for a century and a half, the Jewish communities of Avignon and Carpentras experienced a revival after 1962, with the arrival ofJews repatriated from Algeria. The synagogue of Carpentras, rebuilt in the 18th century on 14th-century foundations, is today the oldest synagogue in France still in use.
After the emancipation of the Jews, descendants of these communities played an active role in French society and distinguished themselves in various fields. In politics,Adolphe Crémieux (1796–1880) granted French nationality to theJews of Algeria (Crémieux Decree);Alfred Naquet (1834–1916), deputy and later senator forVaucluse in the earlyThird Republic, introduced legislation on divorce.Jassuda Bédarrides (1804–1882), jurist and politician, was the first Jewish lawyer in the history of theAix-en-Provence bar and the city's first Jewish mayor.Joseph-Elzéar Morenas fromSaint-Christol-d'Albion was one of the most known French abolitionists.
In art and culture, notable figures included writerBernard Lazare (1865–1903), one of CaptainDreyfus' principal defenders;Armand Lunel (1892–1977), the last speaker of Judeo-Provençal and chronicler of Comtadin Judaism; composerDarius Milhaud (1892–1974); conductorPierre Monteux (1875–1964); entrepreneur Gaston Cavaillon (1910–1986); historianPierre Vidal-Naquet (1930–2006); and infectious disease specialist and academic Anne-Claude Crémieux.
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