Pannai Kingdom | |
|---|---|
| 11th century–14th century | |
| Capital | Pannai |
| Religion | Vajrayana Buddhism |
| Government | Monarchy |
| History | |
• Established | 11th century |
• Disestablished | 14th century |
| Today part of | Indonesia |
Pannai,Panai orPane was aBuddhist kingdom located on the east coast of NorthernSumatra that existed between the 11th and 14th centuries.[1] The kingdom was located on theBarumun River andPanai River valleys, in today'sLabuhan Batu andSouth Tapanuli regencies. Because surviving inscriptions and historical records of this period are scarce, the kingdom is among the least known political entities inIndonesian history. Historians suggest that Pannai was probably a principality or a vassal allied under theSrivijayanmandala and later toDharmasraya kingdom.[2][3][unreliable source?]
The historical records mentioning this kingdom derived from Indian andJavanese sources. The state of Pannai, with river runs through it, was mentioned in the Tanjore inscription dating from the 11th century, as one of the polity sacked by Rajendra Chola I of Chola dynasty during hiscampaign against the prosperous Srivijaya.[4] Three centuries later,Prapanca confirmed Pannai as one of the Malay states targeted in Majapahit's foreign diplomacy.[5]
Despite the lack of local historical records, on the upstream of these rivers however, 16 BuddhistVajrayana temples were discovered. These temples are known today as thePadanglawas temple compounds, with one specifically known as theBahal temple. Experts suggest that the existence of the temples is linked to the Kingdom of Pannai. The temples constitute tangible traces of Vajranaya Buddhism in Sumatra.[3]
The state of Pannai, according toThanjavur inscription found in India, fell after a surprise attack from the rear. Pannai did not suspect an attack from a Chola occupied Srivijaya, the mandala's capital.
Historian suggests, that it is likely that the past Padang Lawas area was more fertile than it is now. Therefore the Panai Kingdom was rich in forest products, especiallycamphor and livestock, and might also produce gold. Only the rich and prosperous society were able to build temples like Bahal temple complex. In Armenian-language travel records,Indian City Names and Persian Suburbs, Pane is referred to as the port where much high-quality camphor can be found. Camphor originated from two ports, namelyBarus on the west coast of Sumatra, andP’anes orP’anis, namely Panai on the east coast.[4]
The existence of this kingdom was first mentioned inThanjavur inscription written inTamil dated from 1025 and 1030. The inscription created byRajendra Chola I, king of Cholamandala kingdom,Chola Dynasty, in South India, mentioned aboutChola invasion of Srivijaya. This inscription mentioned Pannai with its water ponds was among the conquered cities during Rajendra Chola I campaign against Srivijaya.[6]
Other than Pannai, the Chola invasion also claimedMalaiyur,Ilongasogam,Madamalingam,Ilamuri-Desam, andKadaram. The inclusion of Pannai together with other port cities being invaded during Chola campaign against Srivijaya suggested that Pannai was a member of the Srivijayanmandala.[4]
The only local source mentioning the namePanai is the Panai inscription, discovered by theBiaro Bahal temple complex, in Padang Lawas regency, North Sumatra. The 10th line of the inscription contains the wordPanai.[5] There is also a mention of the wordkuti in the inscription which probably refer to the Buddhist temple nearby, called asbiaro by current local community. The title ofhaji accompanying the wordkuti indicates that there is a small kingdom ruled by ahaji or a lesser king, which was posthumously dedicated in the Bahal temple. In other words, historian conclude that Pannai was probably a small kingdom ruled by a king with honorific titleHaji, which was the adherent of Buddhism. In ancient Indonesia, the titlehaji oraji refers to a regional ruler, a lesser king, a vassal, or a subordinate ruler in contrast to the paramountMaharaja (Chakravartin). To date, Panai inscription is the only remaining local primary historical source of the kingdom. Unfortunately much of the writings in this inscription is unreadable due to its poor condition.[5]
Three centuries later, the name of the kingdom reappeared in Javanese source, theNagarakretagama, written by Mpu Prapanca fromMajapahit Empire dated 1365 (or 1287 Saka year). In Nagarakretagama canto 13, Pane is mentioned as one of Sumatran kingdoms held under Majapahit influence. Javanese overlordship upon Malay states in Sumatra was probably initiated throughSinghasari'sPamalayu expedition that pull MalayuDharmasraya into Singhasari mandala orbit. Therefore, all of Dharmasraya's vassal states were also recruited within Javanese Singhasari mandala. These states includes Palembang, Teba, Kandis, Kahwas, Minangkabau, Siak, Rokan, Kampar, Pane, Kampe, Haru, Mandailing, Tamiyang, Perlak, Padang Lawas, Samudra, Lamuri, Batan, Lampung and Barus, all were under Singhasari influence later inherited by its successor state, Majapahit.
Historians and archaeology experts tried to locate the kingdom mentioned in these historical sources. The similar-sounding names directing them into the estuarine ofPanai River and also nearby Barumun River on the east coast of todayNorth Sumatra province, facingMalacca Strait. The toponymy Panai is still can be found toda in several areas in North Sumatra. InLabuhanbatu Regency there are Central Panai District, Panai Hulu District and Panai Hilir District. All three are located on the east coast of Sumatra, close to the Malacca Strait.[5]
In 1846Franz Junghuhn, a geology expert under Commission ofDutch East Indies authority reported the discovery of temple compound in Padanglawas area, upstream ofBarumun River. This vast and empty savanna-like area dotted withBiaro, a local name for temple, obviously derived fromSanskritvihara. These red brick structures — most of them are in ruins — was once the spiritual center of Pannai Kingdom.[7] The most well-preserved temple within this Padanglawas temple compounds isBahal temple.[8]
Padanglawas area is a dry lowland basin with savanna-like climate. It is unlikely that this area was once support a dense habitation, and probably only used for religious purposes. Although this area is quite accessible by river or land routes, the dry climate of Padanglawas could not support agriculture villages. Therefore, it is suggested that the habitation area of the people that supported Padanglawas culture was located elsewhere. Probably near the estuarine of Barumun and Panai river and not located near these temples.[7] It is suggested that the center of Pannai Kingdom was located in the more fertile area and much closer to maritime trade route of Malacca Strait, which pointing into the estuarine of Panai and Barumun river.
Despite its rich archaeological value, unlike the populartemples of Java, the Padanglawas temples are mostly neglected and in the state of ruins.[1] There are some attempts to promote the temples as a tourism attraction, however because of its remote location and poor infrastructure, promotion and tourism activity is limited.
Other than the temple complex, some archaeological artifact has been discovered in the area. A bronze statue of BuddhaAmitabha was found in the main temple of Pamutung, Padang Lawas. This bronze image demonstrate Sri Lankan style, it was presumably imported from Sri Lanka to Sumatra. This is one of a few artifacts linked to the Pannai Kingdom. This statue is now a collection ofTropenmuseum in the Netherlands.
