| Pandanus | |
|---|---|
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| Fruit ofPandanus utilis | |
Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Monocots |
| Order: | Pandanales |
| Family: | Pandanaceae |
| Genus: | Pandanus Parkinson[1] |
| Species | |
| Synonyms[1] | |
20 synonyms
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Pandanus is agenus ofmonocots with about 578 acceptedspecies.[1] They are palm-like,dioecious trees and shrubs native to theOld World tropics and subtropics. Common names includepandan,screw palm andscrew pine. The genus is classified in the orderPandanales, familyPandanaceae,[2][3] and is the largest in the family.[4]
The species vary in size from small shrubs less than 1 metre (3+1⁄2 feet) tall, to medium-sized trees 20 m (66 ft) tall, typically with a broad canopy, heavy fruit, and moderate growth rate.[6][self-published source?] The trunk is stout, wide-branching, and ringed with many leaf scars.[7] Mature plants can have branches.[7] Depending on the species, the trunk can be smooth, rough, or warty.[8] The roots form a pyramidal tract to hold the trunk.[9] They commonly have many thick stilt roots near the base, which provide support as the tree grows top-heavy with leaves, fruit, and branches.[10] These roots areadventitious and often branched. The top of the plant has one or more crowns of strap-shaped leaves that may be spiny,[2][3] varying between species from 30 centimetres (12 inches) to2 m (6+1⁄2 ft) or longer, and from1.5 cm (5⁄8 in) up to 10 cm (4 in) broad.
They aredioecious, with male and female flowers produced on different plants. The flowers of the male tree are2–3 cm (3⁄4–1+1⁄4 in) long and fragrant, surrounded by narrow, white bracts. The female tree produces flowers with round fruits that are also bract-surrounded. The individual fruit is adrupe, and these merge to varying degrees formingmultiple fruit, a globule structure, 10–20 cm (4–8 in) in diameter and have many prism-like sections, resembling the fruit of the pineapple. Typically, the fruit changes from green to bright orange or red as it matures. The fruits can stay on the tree for more than 12 months.
The oldest fossil of the genus isPandanus estellae, which is known from asilicified fruit found in Queensland, Australia, dating to theOligocene epoch around 32–28 million years ago.[11] Phylogenetic analyses of the maternal DNA ofPandanus has shown the genus to be divided into two large groups (Clade I and Clade II), with each of those groups further subdivided into two smaller groups (Subclade Ia, Subclade Ib, Subclade IIa, and Subclade IIb).[12][13] The split between Clades I and II was determined to have occurred during the earlyMiocene, whereas the splits between Subclade Ia and Ib and between Subclade IIa and IIb were determined to have occurred during theMiddle Miocene Climatic Optimum.[13]
Though often called "pandanus palms", these plants are not closely related to palm trees. The genus is named after theMalay wordpandan given toPandanus amaryllifolius, the genus's most commonly known species.[14] The name is derived fromProto-Austronesian*paŋudaN (which becameProto-Malayo-Polynesian *pangdan andProto-Oceanic *padran). It has many cognates inAustronesian languages, underscoring its importance inAustronesian cultures, includingAtayalpangran;Kavalanpangzan;Thaopanadan;Tagalogpandan;Chamorropahong;Manggaraipandang;Malagasyfandrana,Tonganfā;Tahitianfara;Hawaiianhala all referring to plants of similar characteristics and/or uses whether in the same genus (particularlyPandanus tectorius) or otherwise (in the case ofMāoriwhara orhara; e.g.harakeke).[15][16]Pandanus is traditionally divided into sixsubgenera (Coronata,Kurzia,Lophostigma,Pandanus,Rykia, andVinsonia), howevermolecular phylogenetic analyses have shown these subgenera to not represent the true evolutionary history ofPandanus as all butCoronata are eitherpolyphyletic orparaphyletic.[12][13]
Note: several species previously placed inPandanus subgeneraAcrostigma andMartellidendron are now in the distinct generaBenstonea andMartellidendron, respectively.[12]
Pandanus is aPaleotropical genus.[4] The greatest number of species are found inMadagascar andMalaysia.[17][page needed]
These plants grow from sea level to an altitude of 3,300 m (10,800 ft). Pandanus trees are of cultural, health, and economic importance in the Pacific, second only to the coconut on atolls.[18][19] They grow wild mainly in semi-natural vegetation in littoral habitats throughout the tropical and subtropical Pacific, where they can withstand drought, strong winds, and salt spray. They propagate readily from seed, but popular cultivars are also widely propagated from branch cuttings by local people.[2]
Species growing on exposed coastal headlands and along beaches have thick 'stilt roots' as anchors in the loose sand.[2][20] Those stilt roots emerge from the stem, usually close to but above the ground, which helps to keep the plants upright and secure them to the ground.[10]
WhilePandanus are distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical islands and coastlines of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans,[21][22][23] they are most numerous on the low islands and barren atolls of Polynesia and Micronesia.[24][25][26][27] Other species are adapted to mountain habitats and riverine forests.[28]
The tree is grown and propagated from shoots that form spontaneously in the axils of lower leaves. Pandanus fruits are eaten by animals including bats, rats, crabs, and elephants, but the vast majority of species are dispersed primarily by water.[9] Its fruit can float and spread to other islands without help from humans.[22]
Climate andsoil analyses based on a molecular phylogenetic framework have shown that the largest split inPandanus (between Clades I and II) is also associated with a difference in climate and soil conditions between the two groups.[13] Clade IIPandanus species are associated with moreseasonaltemperature andprecipitation regimes, and more well-draining soils, than Clade IPandanus species.[13] In addition, this split is also associated with the occurrence of specialized layer of water storagetissue (also known as hydrenchyma) in Clade II species ofPandanus that is thought to aid in theiradaptation to morewater-stressed environments.[13]
Pandanus has multiple uses, which is dependent in part on each type and location. SomePandanus are a source of food, while others provide raw material for clothing, basket weaving and shelter.
Pandanus leaves are used for handicrafts. Artisans collect the leaves from plants in the wild, cutting only mature leaves so that the plant will naturally regenerate. The leaves are sliced into fine strips and sorted for further processing. Weavers produce basic pandan mats of standard size or roll the leaves into pandan ropes for other designs. This is followed by a coloring process, in which pandan mats are placed in drums with water-based colors. After drying, the colored mats are shaped into final products, such as placemats or jewelry boxes. Final color touch-ups may be applied. The species in Hawaiʻi are calledhala, and only the dry leaves(lauhala) are collected and used forLauhala weaving. Traditions of weaving pandanus to source fabric material were widespread amongPolynesians even as they migrated reaching colder latitudes (like the islands of New Zealand) where no pandanus grew, which later Māori generations simply adapted theirskills with native plants likePhormium having superficially similar properties, even reflected in their names (e.g. the aforementionedharakeke, andwharariki).[29]
Pandanus leaves fromPandanus amaryllifolius are used widely in Southeast Asian and South Asian cuisines to add a distinct aroma to various dishes and to complement flavors like chocolate. Because of their similarity in usage, pandan leaves are sometimes referred to as the "vanilla of Asia."[30][31][32] Fresh leaves are typically torn into strips, tied in a knot to facilitate removal, placed in the cooking liquid, then removed at the end of cooking. Dried leaves and bottled extract may be bought in some places. Finely sliced pandan leaves are used as fragrant confetti for Malay weddings, graves etc.[citation needed]
Pandan leaves are known asDaun pandan in Indonesian and Malaysian Malay;Dahon ng pandan (lit. "pandan leaf") or simplypandan in Filipino; 斑蘭 (bān lán) in Mandarin; as ใบเตย (bai toei;pronounced[bāj.tɤ̄ːj]) in Thai,lá dứa in Vietnamese;pulao data in Bengali; andrampe in Sinhalese and Hindi.
In India, particularly in Nicobar Islands, pandanus fruit is staple food ofShompen people andNicobarese people.[33]
In Sri Lanka, pandan leaves are used heavily in both vegetable and meat dishes and are often grown in homes. It is common practice to add a few pieces of pandan leaf when cooking red or white rice as well.
In Southeast Asia, pandan leaves are mainly used in sweets such ascoconut jam andpandan cake. In Indonesia and Malaysia, pandan is also added to rice and curry dishes such asnasi lemak. In the Philippines, pandan leaves are commonly paired with coconut meat (a combination referred to asbuko pandan) in various desserts and drinks likemaja blanca andgulaman.[34]
In Indian cooking, the leaf is added whole tobiryani, a kind of ricepilaf, made with ordinary rice (as opposed to that made with the premium-gradebasmati rice). The basis for this use is that both basmati and pandan leaf contains the same aromatic flavoring ingredient,2-acetyl-1-pyrroline. InSri Lanka, pandan leaves are a major ingredient used in the country's cuisine.[35]
Kewra (also spelledKevda orKevada) is an extract distilled from the pandan flower, used to flavor drinks and desserts in Indian cuisine. Also,kewra orkevada is used in religious worship, and the leaves are used to make hair ornaments worn for their fragrance as well as decorative purpose in western India.[24]
Species with large and medium fruit are edible, notably the many cultivated forms ofP. tectorius (P. pulposus) andP. utilis. The ripe fruit can be eaten raw or cooked,[36] while partly ripe fruit should be cooked first.[37] Small-fruited pandanus may be bitter and astringent.[36]
Karuka nuts (P. julianettii) are an important staple food in New Guinea.[38] Over 45 cultivated varieties are known.[39] Entire households will move,[40] and in some areas will speak apandanus language at harvest time.[41][42] The taste is like coconut[38][39][43] or walnuts.[44]
ThroughoutOceania, almost every part of the plant is used, with various species different from those used in Southeast Asian cooking.Pandanus trees provide materials for housing; clothing and textiles including the manufacture ofdilly bags (carrying bags), fine mats orʻie toga; sails,[45] food, medication,[citation needed] decorations, fishing, and religious uses. In the Vanuatu Archipelago, natives make woven fish traps from the hard interior root of the pandanus, made like a cage having a narrow entrance.[46]
As of 1973, all canoes onSatawal were usingdacron sails sewn by the men themselves. Most Carolinian canoes had used canvas acquired during the Japanese presence in the islands. The people of Satawal, however, were reluctant to switch from the cumbersome pandanus-mat sails, probably because canoes and voyaging were included in the elaborate pre-Christian taboo system. Christianity took hold on Satawal during the decades after World War II, and the Islanders then used canvas. When I and Gary Mount, as Peace Corps volunteers, demonstrated the obvious superiority of dacron over the canvas with only a 4-inch square sample, the men agreed to purchase sails for the canoes of the island. As word of the superiority of dacron spread, the people ofIfalik,Elato,Woleai,Pulusuk,Pulap, andPuluwat have equipped at least one canoe on each island with dacron.
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