Panama,[a] officially theRepublic of Panama,[b] is a country inLatin America at the southern end ofCentral America, bordering South America. It is bordered byCosta Rica to the west,Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the south. Its capital and largest city isPanama City, whosemetropolitan area is home to nearly half of the country's over 4 million inhabitants.[9][10]
The definite origin of the namePanama is unknown. There are several theories. One states that the country was named after a commonly found species of tree (Sterculia apetala, the Panama tree). Another states that the first settlers arrived in Panama in August, when butterflies are abundant, and that the name means "many butterflies" in one or several of theindigenous American Indian languages that were spoken in the territory prior to theSpanish colonization. Another theory states that the word is aCastilianization of theKuna language word "bannaba" which means "distant" or "far away".[18]
A commonly relayed legend in Panama is that there was a fishing village that bore the name "Panamá", which purportedly meant "an abundance of fish", when the Spanish colonists first landed in the area. The exact location of the village is unknown. The legend is usually corroborated by Captain Antonio Tello de Guzmán's diary entries, who reports landing at an unnamed village while exploring the Pacific coast of Panama in 1515; he only describes the village as a "small indigenous fishing town". In 1517, DonGaspar de Espinosa, a Spanish lieutenant, decided to build a trading post in the same location Guzmán described. In 1519,Pedro Arias Dávila decided to establish the Spanish Empire's Pacific port at the site. The new settlement replacedSanta María la Antigua del Darién, which had lost its function within the Crown's global plan after the Spanish exploitation of the riches in the Pacific began.
The official definition and origin of the name as promoted by Panama's Ministry of Education is the "abundance of fish, trees and butterflies".[citation needed] This is the usual description given insocial studies textbooks.
TheIsthmus of Panama was formed about three million years ago when the land bridge between North and South America finally became complete, and plants and animals gradually crossed it in both directions. The existence of theisthmus affected the dispersal of people, agriculture and technology throughout the American continent from the appearance of the first hunters and collectors to the era of villages and cities.[19][20]
The earliest discovered artifacts ofindigenous peoples in Panama includePaleo-Indianprojectile points. Later central Panama was home to some of the firstpottery-making in the Americas, for example the cultures atMonagrillo, which date back to 2500–1700 BC. These evolved into significant populations best known through their spectacular burials (dating to c. 500–900 AD) at theMonagrilloarchaeological site, and theirGran Coclé stylepolychrome pottery. The monumentalmonolithic sculptures at theBarriles (Chiriqui) site are also important traces of these ancient isthmian cultures.
Before Europeans arrived Panama was widely settled byChibchan,Chocoan, andCueva peoples. The largest group were the Cueva (whose specific language affiliation is poorly documented). The size of theindigenous population of the isthmus at the time of European colonization is uncertain. Estimates range as high as two million people, but more recent studies place that number closer to 200,000. Archaeological finds and testimonials by early European explorers describe diverse native isthmian groups exhibiting cultural variety and suggesting people developed[clarification needed] by regular regional routes of commerce.Austronesians had a trade network to Panama as there is evidence ofcoconuts reaching the Pacific coast of Panama from thePhilippines inPrecolumbian times.[21]
When Panama was colonized, the indigenous peoples fled into the forest and nearby islands. Scholars believe thatinfectious disease was the primary cause of the population decline of American natives. The indigenous peoples had noacquired immunity to diseases such assmallpox which had been chronic inEurasian populations for centuries.[22][23]
Rodrigo de Bastidas sailed westward fromVenezuela in 1501 in search of gold, and became the first European to explore the isthmus of Panama. A year later,Christopher Columbus visited the isthmus, and established a short-lived settlement in the province ofDarien.Vasco Núñez de Balboa's tortuous trek from the Atlantic to the Pacific in 1513 demonstrated that the isthmus was indeed the path between the seas, and Panama quickly became the crossroads and marketplace of Spain's empire in theNew World. KingFerdinand II assignedPedro Arias Dávila as Royal Governor. He arrived in June 1514 with 19 vessels and 1,500 men. In 1519, Dávila foundedPanama City.[24] Gold and silver were brought by ship from South America, hauled across the isthmus, and loaded aboard ships for Spain. The route became known as the Camino Real, or Royal Road, although it was more commonly known as Camino de Cruces (Road of Crosses) because of the number of gravesites along the way. At 1520 the Genoese controlled the port of Panama. The Genoese obtained a concession from the Spanish to exploit the port of Panama mainly for the slave trade, until the destruction of the primeval city in 1671.[25][26] In the meantime in 1635 DonSebastián Hurtado de Corcuera, the then governor of Panama, had recruitedGenoese, Peruvians, and Panamanians, as soldiers to wage war against Muslims in the Philippines and to found the cityof Zamboanga.[27]
Panama was underSpanish rule for almost 300 years (1538–1821), and became part of theViceroyalty of Peru, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America. From the outset, Panamanian identity was based on a sense of "geographic destiny", and Panamanian fortunes fluctuated with the geopolitical importance of the isthmus. The colonial experience spawned Panamanian nationalism and a racially complex and highly stratified society, the source of internal conflicts that ran counter to the unifying force of nationalism.[28][page needed]
In 1538, theReal Audiencia of Panama was established, initially withjurisdiction from Nicaragua toCape Horn, until the conquest of Peru. A Real Audiencia was a judicial district that functioned as an appeals court. Each audiencia had anoidor (Spanish: hearer, a judge).
Spanish authorities had little control over much of the territory of Panama. Large sections managed to resist conquest and missionization until late in the colonial era. Because of this, indigenous people of the area were often referred to as "indios de guerra" (war Indians). However, Panama was important to Spain strategically because it was the easiest way to ship silver mined in Peru to Europe. Silver cargoes were landed on the west coast of Panama and then taken overland toPortobello orNombre de Dios on the Caribbean side of the isthmus for further shipment. Aside from the European route, there was also an Asian-American route, which led to traders and adventurers carrying silver fromPeru going over land through Panama to reach Acapulco, Mexico before sailing to Manila, Philippines using the famedManila galleons.[29] In 1579, the royal monopoly that Acapulco, Mexico had on trading with Manila, Philippines was relaxed and Panama was assigned as another port that was able to trade directly with Asia.[30]
Because of incomplete Spanish control, the Panama route was vulnerable to attack from pirates (mostly Dutch and English), and from "new world" Africans calledcimarrons who had freed themselves from enslavement and lived in communes orpalenques around the Camino Real in Panama's Interior, and on some of the islands off Panama's Pacific coast. One such famous community amounted to a small kingdom underBayano, which emerged in the 1552 to 1558 period. SirFrancis Drake's famous raids on Panama in 1572–73 andJohn Oxenham's crossing to the Pacific Ocean were aided by Panama cimarrons, and Spanish authorities were only able to bring them under control by making an alliance with them that guaranteed their freedom in exchange for military support in 1582.[31]
The following elements helped define a distinctive sense of autonomy and of regional or national identity within Panama well before the rest of the colonies: the prosperity enjoyed during the first two centuries (1540–1740) while contributing to colonial growth; the placing of extensive regional judicial authority (Real Audiencia) as part of its jurisdiction; and the pivotal role it played at the height of the Spanish Empire – the first modern global empire.
The end of theencomienda system inAzuero, however, sparked the conquest ofVeraguas in that same year. Under the leadership of Francisco Vázquez, the region of Veraguas passed into Castilian rule in 1558. In the newly conquered region, the old system of encomienda was imposed. On the other hand, the Panamanian movement for independence can be indirectly attributed to the abolition of theencomienda system in theAzuero Peninsula, set forth by the Spanish Crown, in 1558 because of repeated protests by locals against the mistreatment of the native population. In its stead, a system of medium and smaller-sized landownership was promoted, thus taking away the power from the large landowners and into the hands of medium and small-sized proprietors.
In 1671, theprivateerHenry Morgan, licensed by the English government,sacked and burned the city ofPanama – the second most important city in the Spanish New World at the time. In 1717 theviceroyalty of New Granada (northern South America) was created in response to other Europeans trying to take Spanish territory in the Caribbean region. The Isthmus of Panama was placed under its jurisdiction. However, the remoteness of New Granada's capital,Santa Fe de Bogotá (the modern capital ofColombia) proved a greater obstacle than the Spanish crown anticipated as the authority of New Granada was contested by the seniority, closer proximity, and previous ties to theviceroyalty of Peru and even by Panama's own initiative. This uneasy relationship between Panama and Bogotá would persist for centuries.
In 1744, Bishop Francisco Javier de Luna Victoria DeCastro established theCollege of San Ignacio de Loyola and on June 3, 1749, founded La Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Javier. By this time, however, Panama's importance and influence had become insignificant as Spain's power dwindled in Europe and advances in navigation technique increasingly permitted ships to roundCape Horn in order to reach the Pacific. While the Panama route was short it was also labor-intensive and expensive because of the loading and unloading and laden-down trek required to get from the one coast to the other.
As theSpanish American wars of independence were heating up all across Latin America, Panama City was preparing for independence; however, their plans were accelerated by the unilateral Grito de La Villa de Los Santos (Cry From the Town of Saints), issued on November 10, 1821, by the residents ofAzuero without backing from Panama City to declare their separation from the Spanish Empire. In bothVeraguas and the capital this act was met with disdain, although on differing levels. To Veraguas, it was the ultimate act of treason, while to the capital, it was seen as inefficient and irregular, and furthermore forced them to accelerate their plans.
Nevertheless, the Grito was a sign, on the part of the residents of Azuero, of their antagonism toward the independence movement in the capital. Those in the capital region in turn regarded the Azueran movement with contempt, since the separatists in Panama City believed that their counterparts in Azuero were fighting not only for independence from Spain, but also for their right to self-rule apart from Panama City once the Spaniards were gone.
It was seen as a risky move on the part of Azuero, which lived in fear of ColonelJosé Pedro Antonio de Fábrega y de las Cuevas (1774–1841). The colonel was a staunch loyalist and had all of the isthmus' military supplies in his hands. They feared quick retaliation and swift retribution against the separatists.
What they had counted on, however, was the influence of the separatists in the capital. Ever since October 1821, when the former Governor General,Juan de la Cruz Murgeón, left the isthmus on a campaign inQuito and left a colonel in charge, the separatists had been slowly converting Fábrega to the separatist side. So, by November 10, Fábrega was now a supporter of the independence movement. Soon after the separatist declaration of Los Santos, Fábrega convened every organization in the capital with separatist interests and formally declared the city's support for independence. No military repercussions occurred because of skillful bribing of royalist troops.
Post-colonial Panama
1903 political cartoon. The US government, working with separatists in Panama, engineered aPanamanian declaration of independence fromColombia, then sent US warships and marines to Panama to prevent Colombian intervention.[33]
The people of the isthmus made over 80 attempts to secede from Colombia. They came close to success in 1831, then again during theThousand Days' War of 1899–1902, understood among indigenous Panamanians as a struggle for land rights under the leadership of Victoriano Lorenzo.[34]
The US intent to influence the area, especially the Panama Canal's construction and control, led to thesecession of Panama from Colombia in 1903 and its political independence. When theSenate of Colombia rejected theHay–Herrán Treaty on January 22, 1903, the United States decided to support and encourage the Panamanian secessionist movement.[35][33]
In November 1903, Panama, tacitly supported by the United States, proclaimed its independence[36] and concluded theHay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty with the United States without the presence of a single Panamanian.Philippe Bunau-Varilla, a French engineer and lobbyist represented Panama even though Panama's president and a delegation had arrived in New York to negotiate the treaty. Bunau-Varilla was a shareholder in a French company (theCompagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama), which had acquired the rights of the original French company which had gone bankrupt in 1889.[37] The treaty was quickly drafted and signed the night before the Panamanian delegation arrived in Washington. The treaty granted rights to the United States "as if it were sovereign" in azone roughly 16 km (10 mi) wide and 80 km (50 mi) long. In that zone, the US would build a canal, then administer, fortify, and defend it "in perpetuity".
Construction work on theGaillard Cut of the Panama Canal, 1907
In 1914, the United States completed the existing 83-kilometer-long (52-mile) canal.
Because of the strategic importance of the canal duringWorld War II, the US extensively fortified access to it.[38]
From 1903 to 1968, Panama was aconstitutional democracy dominated by a commercially orientedoligarchy. During the 1950s, the Panamanian military began to challenge the oligarchy's political hegemony. The early 1960s saw also the beginning of sustained pressure in Panama for the renegotiation of theHay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty, including riots that broke out in early 1964, resulting in widespread looting and dozens of deaths, and the evacuation of the American embassy.[39]
Amid negotiations for the Robles–Johnson treaty, Panama heldelections in 1968. The candidates were:[40]
Dr.Arnulfo Arias Madrid, Unión Nacional (National Union)
Engr. David Samudio, Alianza del Pueblo (People's Alliance), who had the government's support.
Arias Madrid was declared the winner of elections that were marked by violence and accusations of fraud against Alianza del Pueblo. On October 1, 1968, Arias Madrid took office as president of Panama, promising to lead a government of "national union" that would end the reigning corruption and pave the way for a new Panama. A week and a half later, on October 11, 1968, the National Guard (Guardia Nacional)ousted Arias and initiated the downward spiral that would culminate with the United States' invasion in 1989. Arias, who had promised to respect the hierarchy of the National Guard, broke the pact and started a large restructuring of the Guard. To preserve the Guard's and his vested interests, Lieutenant ColonelOmar Torrijos Herrera and Major Boris Martínez commanded another military coup against the government.[40]
The military justified itself by declaring that Arias Madrid was trying to install a dictatorship, and promised a return to constitutional rule. In the meantime, the Guard began a series of populist measures that would gain support for the coup. Among them were:
Price freezing on food, medicine and other goods[41] until January 31, 1969
rent level freeze
legalization of the permanence of squatting families in boroughs surrounding the historic site of Panama Viejo[40]
Parallel to this, the military began a policy of repression against the opposition, who were labeled communists. The military appointed a Provisional Government Junta that was to arrange new elections. However, the National Guard would prove to be very reluctant to abandon power and soon began calling itselfEl Gobierno Revolucionario (The Revolutionary Government).
Post-1970
Omar Torrijos (right) with farmers in the Panamanian countryside. The Torrijos government was well known for its policies ofland redistribution.
UnderOmar Torrijos's control, the military transformed the political and economic structure of the country, initiating massive coverage of social security services and expanding public education.
The constitution was changed in 1972. To reform the constitution, the military created a new organization, the Assembly of Corregimiento Representatives, which replaced the National Assembly. The new assembly, also known as the Poder Popular (Power of the People), was composed of 505 members selected by the military with no participation from political parties, which the military had eliminated. The new constitution proclaimedOmar Torrijos as the Maximum Leader of the Panamanian Revolution, and conceded him unlimited power for six years, although, to keep a façade of constitutionality,Demetrio B. Lakas was appointed president for the same period.[40]
In 1981, Torrijos died in a plane crash.[42] Torrijos' death altered the tone of Panama's political evolution. Despite the1983 constitutional amendments which proscribed a political role for the military, thePanama Defense Force (PDF), as they were then known, continued to dominate Panamanian political life. By this time, GeneralManuel Antonio Noriega was firmly in control of both the PDF and the civilian government.[when?]
Arnulfo Arias Madrid, for the opposition union ADO
ex-GeneralRubén Darío Paredes, who had been forced to an early retirement by Manuel Noriega, running for the Partido Nacionalista Popular (PAP; "Popular Nationalist Party")
Carlos Iván Zúñiga, running for the Partido Acción Popular (PAPO; Popular Action Party)
Barletta was declared the winner of elections that had been considered to be fraudulent. Barletta inherited a country in economic ruin and hugely indebted to theInternational Monetary Fund and theWorld Bank. Amid the economic crisis and Barletta's efforts to calm the country's creditors, street protests arose, and so did military repression.
Meanwhile, Noriega's regime had fostered a well-hidden criminal economy that operated as a parallel source of income for the military and their allies, providing revenues from drugs andmoney laundering. Toward the end of the military dictatorship, a new wave of Chinese migrants arrived on the isthmus in the hope of migrating to the United States. The smuggling of Chinese became an enormous business, with revenues of up to 200 million dollars for Noriega's regime (see Mon 167).[43]
The military dictatorship assassinated or tortured more than one hundred Panamanians and forced at least a hundred more dissidents into exile. (see Zárate 15).[44] Noriega's regime was supported by the United States and it began playing a double role in Central America. While theContadora group, an initiative launched by the foreign ministers of various Latin American nations including Panama's, conducted diplomatic efforts to achieve peace in the region, Noriega supplied NicaraguanContras and other guerrillas in the region with weapons and ammunition on behalf of the CIA.[40]
On June 6, 1987, the recently retired Colonel Roberto Díaz Herrera, resentful that Noriega had broken the agreed-upon "Torrijos Plan" of succession that would have made him the chief of the military after Noriega, decided to denounce the regime. He revealed details of electoral fraud,[45] accused Noriega of planning Torrijos's death and declared that Torrijos had received 12 million dollars from the Shah of Iran for giving the exiled Iranian leader asylum. He also accused Noriega of the assassination by decapitation of then-opposition leader, Dr.Hugo Spadafora.[40][46]
On the night of June 9, 1987, the Cruzada Civilista ("Civic Crusade") was created[where?] and began organizing actions of civil disobedience. The Crusade called for a general strike. In response, the military suspended constitutional rights and declared a state of emergency in the country. On July 10, theCivic Crusade called for a massive demonstration that was violently repressed by the "Dobermans", the military's special riot control unit. That day, later known as El Viernes Negro ("Black Friday"), left many people injured and killed.[47]
United States PresidentRonald Reagan began a series of sanctions against the military regime. The United States froze economic and military assistance to Panama in the middle of 1987 in response to the domestic political crisis in Panama and an attack on the US embassy. The sanctions failed to oust Noriega, but severely hurt Panama's economy. Panama's gross domestic product (GDP) declined almost 25 percent between 1987 and 1989.[48]
On February 5, 1988, General Manuel Antonio Noriega was accused of drug trafficking by federal juries in Tampa and Miami.Human Rights Watch wrote in its 1989 report: "Washington turned a blind eye to abuses in Panama for many years until concern over drug trafficking prompted indictments of the general [Noriega] by two grand juries in Florida in February 1988".[49]
In April 1988, US President Ronald Reagan invoked theInternational Emergency Economic Powers Act, freezing Panamanian government assets in all US organizations. In May 1989 Panamanians voted overwhelmingly for the anti-Noriega candidates. The Noriega regime promptly annulled the election and embarked on a new round of repression.
The United States invaded Panama on December 20, 1989, codenamedOperation Just Cause. The U.S. stated the operation was "necessary to safeguard the lives of U.S. citizens in Panama, defend democracy and human rights, combat drug trafficking, and secure the neutrality of the Panama Canal as required by theTorrijos–Carter Treaties".[50] The US reported 23 servicemen killed and 324 wounded, with the number of Panamanian soldiers killed estimated at 450. The estimates for civilians killed in the conflict ranges from 200 to 4,000. The United Nations put the Panamanian civilian death toll at 500,Americas Watch estimated 300, the United States gave a figure of 202 civilians killed and former US attorney generalRamsey Clark estimated 4,000 deaths.[51] It represented the largest United States military operation since the Vietnam War.[52] The number of US civilians (and their dependents), who had worked for thePanama Canal Commission and the US military, and were killed by the Panamanian Defense Forces, has never been fully disclosed.
On December 29, theUnited Nations General Assembly approved a resolution calling the intervention in Panama a "flagrant violation of international law and of the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the States".[53] A similar resolution was vetoed in theSecurity Council by the United States, the United Kingdom, and France.[54] Noriega was captured and flown to Miami to be tried. The conflict ended on January 31, 1990.
The urban population, many living below the poverty level, was greatly affected by the 1989 intervention. As pointed out in 1995 by a UN Technical Assistance Mission to Panama, the fighting displaced 20,000 people. The most heavily affected district was theEl Chorrillo area of Panama City, where several blocks of apartments were completely destroyed.[55][56][57] The economic damage caused by the fighting has been estimated at between 1.5 and 2 billion dollars.[48] MostPanamanians supported the intervention.[49][58]
Post-intervention era
Panama's Electoral Tribunal moved quickly to restore civilian constitutional government, reinstated the results of the May 1989 election on December 27, 1989, and confirmed the victory of PresidentGuillermo Endara and Vice PresidentsGuillermo Ford andRicardo Arias Calderón.
During its five-year term, the often-fractious government struggled to meet the public's high expectations. Its new police force was a major improvement over its predecessor but was not fully able to deter crime.Ernesto Pérez Balladares was sworn in as president on September 1, 1994, after an internationally monitored election campaign.[59]
On September 1, 1999,Mireya Moscoso, the widow of former PresidentArnulfo Arias Madrid, took office after defeating PRD candidateMartín Torrijos, son ofOmar Torrijos, in a free and fair election.[60][61] During her administration, Moscoso attempted to strengthen social programs, especially for child and youth development, protection, and general welfare. Moscoso's administration successfully handled the Panama Canal transfer and was effective in the administration of the Canal.[61]
British Foreign SecretaryBoris Johnson swapped football shirts with the President of Panama,Juan Carlos Varela in London, May 14, 2018.
The PRD's Martin Torrijos won the presidency and a legislative majority in the National Assembly in 2004.[62] Torrijos ran his campaign on a platform of, among other pledges, a "zero tolerance" for corruption, a problem endemic to the Moscoso and Perez Balladares administrations.[59] After taking office, Torrijos passed a number of laws which made the government more transparent. He formed a National Anti-Corruption Council whose members represented the highest levels of government and civil society, labor organizations, and religious leadership. In addition, many of his closest Cabinet ministers were non-politicaltechnocrats known for their support for the Torrijos government's anti-corruption aims. Despite the Torrijos administration's public stance on corruption, many high-profile cases,[59] particularly involving political or business elites, were never acted upon.
Conservative supermarket magnateRicardo Martinelli was elected to succeed Martin Torrijos with a landslide victory in the May2009 Panamanian general election. Martinelli's business credentials drew voters worried by slowing growth during theGreat Recession.[63] Standing for the four-party opposition Alliance for Change, Martinelli gained 60 percent of the vote, against 37 percent for the candidate of the governing left-wingDemocratic Revolutionary Party (PRD).[64]
On July 1, 2024,José Raúl Mulino was sworn in as Panama's new president.[71] Mulino, a close ally of former President Ricardo Martinelli, won the presidentialelection in May 2024.[72] In 2024, due to a rapid rise of Chinese immigration to Panama supplanting the local population and now forming 4% of the people,[73][74] of which, they are accused by theUnited States of spying for theChinese Communist Party, in the strategic isthmus of Panama which is crucial for the trade in the Americas, thus, American PresidentDonald Trump has threatened to sanction Panama unless the threat of China is neutralized.[75]
Panama is located in Central America, bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, between Colombia and Costa Rica. It mostly lies between latitudes7° and10°N, and longitudes77° and83°W (a small area lies west of 83°).
Its location on theIsthmus of Panama is strategic. By 2000, Panama controlled the Panama Canal which connects the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea to the north of the Pacific Ocean. Panama's total area is 74,177.3 km2 (28,640.0 sq mi).[76]
The dominant feature of Panama's geography is the central spine of mountains and hills that form thecontinental divide. The divide does not form part of the great mountain chains of North America, and only near the Colombian border are there highlands related to theAndean system of South America. The spine that forms the divide is the highly eroded arch of an uplift from the sea bottom, in which peaks were formed by volcanic intrusions.
The mountain range of the divide is called theCordillera de Talamanca near the Costa Rican border. Farther east it becomes the Serranía de Tabasará, and the portion of it closer to the lower saddle of the isthmus, where the Panama Canal is located, is often called the Sierra de Veraguas. As a whole, the range between Costa Rica and the canal is generally referred to by geographers as theCordillera Central.
The highest point in the country is theVolcán Barú, which rises to 3,475 metres (11,401 feet). A nearly impenetrable jungle forms theDarién Gap between Panama and Colombia where Colombianguerrillas and drug dealers operate and sometimes takehostages. This, as well as unrest andforest protection movements, creates the only break in thePan-American Highway, which otherwise forms a complete road from Alaska toPatagonia.
Panama's wildlife is the most diverse in Central America. It is home to many South American species as well as to North American wildlife.
Nearly 500 rivers lace Panama's rugged landscape. Mostly unnavigable, many originate as swift highland streams, meander in valleys, and form coastal deltas. However, theRío Chagres (Chagres River), located in central Panama, is one of the few wide rivers and a source ofhydroelectric power. The central part of the river is dammed by theGatun Dam and formsGatun Lake, anartificial lake that constitutes part of the Panama Canal. The lake was created by the construction of the Gatun Dam across the Río Chagres between 1907 and 1913. Once created, Gatun Lake was the largest man-made lake in the world, and the dam was the largest earth dam. The river drains northwest into the Caribbean. The Kampia and Madden Lakes (also filled from the Río Chagres) provide hydroelectricity for the area of the former Canal Zone.
The Río Chepo, another source of hydroelectric power, is one of the more than 300 rivers emptying into the Pacific. These Pacific-oriented rivers are longer and slower-running than those on the Caribbean side. Their basins are also more extensive. One of the longest is theRío Tuira, which flows into theGolfo de San Miguel and is the nation's only river that is navigable by larger vessels.
Harbors
The Caribbean coastline is marked by several natural harbors. However, Cristóbal, at the Caribbean terminus of the canal, had the only important port facilities in the late 1980s. The numerous islands of the Archipiélago de Bocas del Toro, near the Beaches of Costa Rica, provide an extensive natural roadstead and shield the banana port ofAlmirante. The more than 350San Blas Islands near Colombia, are strung out over more than 160 kilometres (99 miles) along the sheltered Caribbean coastline.
The terminal ports located at each end of the Panama Canal, namely thePort of Cristóbal, Colón, and thePort of Balboa, are ranked second and third respectively in Latin America in terms of the number of container units (TEU) handled.[77] The Port of Balboa covers 182 hectares and contains four berths for containers and two multi-purpose berths. In total, the berths are over 2,400 metres (7,900 feet) long with alongside depth of 15 metres (49 feet). The Port of Balboa has 18 super post-Panamax and Panamax quay cranes and 44gantry cranes. The Port of Balboa also contains 2,100 square metres (23,000square feet) of warehouse space.[78]
The Ports of Cristobal (encompassing the container terminals of Panama Ports Cristobal, Manzanillo International Terminal, and Colon Container Terminal) handled 2,210,720 TEU in 2009, second only to thePort of Santos, Brazil, in Latin America.
Excellent deep water ports capable of accommodating largeVLCC (Very Large Crude Oil Carriers) are located atCharco Azul,Chiriquí (Pacific), andChiriquí Grande,Bocas del Toro (Atlantic) near Panama's western border with Costa Rica. TheTrans-Panama pipeline, running 131 kilometres (81 miles) across the isthmus, has operated between Charco Azul and Chiriquí Grande since 1979.[79]
Panama map of Köppen climate classificationA cooler climate is common in the Panamanian highlands.
Panama has a tropical climate. Temperatures are uniformly high—as is the relative humidity—and there is little seasonal variation.Diurnal ranges are low; on a typical dry-season day in the capital city, the early morning minimum may be 24 °C (75.2 °F) and the afternoon maximum 30 °C (86.0 °F). The temperature seldom exceeds 32 °C (89.6 °F) for more than a short time. Temperatures on the Pacific side of the isthmus are somewhat lower than on the Caribbean, and breezes tend to rise after dusk in most parts of the country. Temperatures are markedly cooler in the higher parts of the mountain ranges, and frosts occur in theCordillera de Talamanca in western Panama.
Climatic regions are determined less on the basis of temperature than onrainfall, which varies regionally from less than 1,300 millimeters (51.2 in) to more than 3,000 millimeters (118.1 in) per year. Almost all of the rain falls during the rainy season, which is usually from April to December, but varies in length from seven to nine months. In general, rainfall is much heavier on the Caribbean than on the Pacific side of thecontinental divide, due in part to occasionaltropical cyclone activity nearby; Panama lies outside theMain Development Region. The annual average in Panama City is little more than half of that in Colón.
Panama is one of three countries in the world to be carbon-negative, meaning that it absorbs morecarbon dioxide than it releases into the atmosphere. The others areBhutan andSuriname.[80][81]
Biodiversity
Panama's tropical environment supports an abundance of plants. Forests dominate, interrupted in places by grasslands, scrub, and crops. Although nearly 40% of Panama is still wooded,deforestation is a continuing threat to the rain-drenched woodlands. Tree cover has been reduced by more than 50 percent since the 1940s. Subsistence farming, widely practiced from the northeastern jungles to the southwestern grasslands, consists largely of corn, bean, and tuber plots.Mangrove swamps occur along parts of both coasts, with banana plantations occupying deltas near Costa Rica. In many places, a multi-canopiedrainforest abuts the swamp on one side of the country and extends to the lower reaches of slopes on the other. Panama had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.37/10, ranking it 78th globally out of 172 countries.[82]
In May 2022, in order to increase the supply of lower-carbon aviation fuel, the government of Panama and energy companies announced its plan to develop a major and advanced biorefinery of aviation fuel in the country.[83]
National elections are universal for all citizens 18 years and older. National elections for the executive and legislative branches take place every five years. Members of the judicial branch (justices) are appointed by the head of state. Panama'sNational Assembly is elected by proportional representation in fixed electoral districts, so many smaller parties are represented. Presidential elections require aplurality; out of the five last presidents only ex-president Ricardo Martinelli has managed to be elected with over 50 percent of the popular vote.[84]
Since the end ofManuel Noriega's military dictatorship in 1989, Panama has completed five peaceful transfers of power to opposing political factions. The political landscape is dominated by two major parties and various smaller parties, many of which are driven by individual leaders more than ideologies. Former PresidentMartín Torrijos is the son of the generalOmar Torrijos. He succeededMireya Moscoso, the widow of the former presidentArnulfo Arias. Panama's most recentnational elections took place on May 5, 2024.
The United States cooperates with the Panamanian government in promoting economic, political, security, and social development through US and international agencies. Cultural ties between the two countries are strong,[85] and many Panamanians go to the United States for higher education and advanced training.[86]
Panama is the 96th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index.[87]
Shortly after its independence from Colombia in 1903, Panama abolished its army. It maintained police operations throughout the nation. During the 1940s, the Chief of Police of Panama City,José Remón, exercised pronounced political power in Panama. He removed and appointed several presidents. In 1952 he ran for president. The campaign was marred by police brutality and persecution of the opposition. In an election questioned by independent observers, Remón was declared the president. Less than three years later Remón was assassinated. He was the only president to be assassinated in Panamanian history. Today thePanamanian Public Forces are the national security forces of Panama. Panama is the second country in Latin America (the other beingCosta Rica) to permanently abolish its standing army. Panama maintains armed police and security forces, and small air and maritime forces. They are tasked with law enforcement and can perform limited military actions.
Panama is divided into ten provinces with their respective local authorities (governors). Each is divided intodistricts andcorregimientos (townships). Also, there are sixComarcas (literally: "Shires") populated by a variety of indigenous groups.
This article needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(May 2016)
GDP per capita development Panama since 1950APanamax ship in transit through the Miraflores locks,Panama Canal
According to theCIA World Factbook, as of 2012[update] Panama had anunemployment rate of 2.7 percent.[11] A food surplus was registered in August 2008. On theHuman Development Index, Panama ranked 60th in 2015. In more recent years, Panama's economy has experienced a boom, with growth inreal gross domestic product (GDP) averaging over 10.4 percent in 2006–2008. Panama's economy was among the fastest growing and best managed in Latin America.[citation needed] TheLatin Business Chronicle predicted that Panama would be the fastest growing economy in Latin America during the five-year period from 2010 to 2014, matching Brazil's 10 percent rate.[90]
Even though Panama is regarded as ahigh-income country, it still remains a country of stark contrasts perpetuated by dramatic educational disparities. Between 2015 and 2017, poverty at less than US$5.5 a day fell from 15.4 to an estimated 14.1 percent.[93]
Economic sectors
Panama's economy, because of its key geographic location, is mainly based on a well-developed service sector, especially commerce, tourism, and trading. The handover of the Canal and military installations by the United States has given rise to large construction projects.
A project to build a third set of locks for the Panama Canal was overwhelmingly approved in a referendum (with low voter turnout, however) on October 22, 2006. The official estimated cost of the project is US$5.25 billion, but the canal is of major economic importance because it provides millions of dollars of tollrevenue to the national economy and provides massive employment. Transfer of control of the Canal to the Panamanian government completed in 1999, after 85 years of US control.
Copper and gold deposits are being developed by foreign investors, to the dismay of some environmental groups, as all of the projects are located within protected areas.[94]
Countries with politicians, public officials or close associates implicated in thePanama Papers leak on April 15, 2016
Since the early 20th century, Panama has with the revenues from the canal built the largest Regional Financial Center (IFC)[95] in Central America, with consolidated assets being more than three times that of Panama's GDP. Thebanking sector employs more than 24,000 people directly. Financial intermediation contributed 9.3 percent of GDP.[96] Stability has been a key strength of Panama's financial sector, which has benefited from the country's favorable economic and business climate. Banking institutions report sound growth and solid financial earnings. The banking supervisory regime is largely compliant with theBasel Core Principles for Effective Banking Supervision.[97] As a regional financial center, Panama exports some banking services, mainly to Latin America, and plays an important role in the country's economy. However, Panama still cannot compare to the position held by Hong Kong or Singapore as financial centers in Asia.
Panama still has a reputation worldwide for being atax haven but has agreed to enhanced transparency, especially since the release in 2016 of thePanama Papers. Significant progress has been made to improve full compliance with anti-money laundering recommendations. Panama was removed from theFATF gray list in February 2016. The European Union also removed Panama from its tax haven blacklist in 2018.[98] However efforts remain to be made, and the IMF repeatedly mentions the need to strengthen financial transparency and fiscal structure.[96]
Panama's roads, traffic and transportation systems are generally safe, though night driving is difficult and in some cases, restricted by local authorities. This usually occurs ininformal settlements.[99] Traffic in Panama moves on the right, and Panamanian law requires that drivers and passengers wear seat belts.[99] Highways are generally well-developed for a Latin American country. ThePan-American Highway travels from north to south through the country, starting at the border with Costa Rica, but ending short of Colombia at an area called theDarién Gap.
The Panama City area is well served by the nearly 150 bus routes publicly operatedMiBus system along with the tworapid transit lines of thePanama Metro. Prior to the government operation of bus routes, Panama was served by privately operated buses called "diablo rojos" (English: red devils), which were typically retiredschool buses from the United States painted in bright colours by their operators. The "diablo rojos" that remain are now mainly used in rural areas.
Tourism in Panama has maintained its growth over the past five years due to government tax and price discounts to foreign guests and retirees. These economic incentives have caused Panama to be regarded as a relatively good place to retire.[100][101] Real estate developers in Panama have increased the number of tourism destinations in the past five years because of interest in these visitor incentives.[102]
The number of tourists from Europe grew by 23.1 percent during the first nine months of 2008. According to the Tourism Authority of Panama (ATP), from January to September, 71,154 tourists from Europe entered Panama, 13,373 more than in same period the previous year. Most of the European tourists were Spaniards (14,820), followed by Italians (13,216), French (10,174) and British (8,833). There were 6997 from Germany, the most populous country in the European Union. Europe has become one of the key markets to promote Panama as a tourist destination.
In 2012, 4.585 billion US dollars entered into the Panamanian economy as a result of tourism.[103] This accounted for 11.34 percent of thegross national product of the country,[104] surpassing other productive sectors.[citation needed] The number of tourists who arrived that year was 2.2 million.[105]
Panama enacted Law No. 80 in 2012 to promote foreign investment in tourism. Law 80 replaced an older Law 8 of 1994. Law 80 provides 100 percent exemption fromincome tax and real estate taxes for 15 years, duty-free imports for construction materials and equipment for five years, and acapital gains tax exemption for five years.[106]
The balboa replaced theColombian peso in 1904 after Panama's independence. Balboa banknotes were printed in 1941 by President Arnulfo Arias. They were recalled several days later, giving them the name "The Seven Day Dollars". The notes were burned by the new government, but occasionally balboa notes can be found in collections. These were the only banknotes ever issued by Panama and US notes have circulated both before and since.[108]
On April 28, 2022, Panama's lawmakers approved a bill that would legalize and regulate the use of bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies. The bill covers using cryptocurrency, trading it, tokenizing precious metals, and issuing digital securities, among other related topics. Its passing will also allow citizens to use their cryptocurrency holdings to pay taxes.[109] On July 14, 2023, the Supreme Court of Justice declared the bill unenforceable.[110]
International trade
The high levels of Panamanian trade are in large part from theColón Free Trade Zone, the largest free trade zone in theWestern Hemisphere.[111] Last year the zone accounted for 92 percent of Panama's exports and 64 percent of its imports, according to an analysis of figures from the Colon zone management and estimates of Panama's trade by theUnited Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean. Panama's economy is also very much supported by the trade and export of coffee and other agricultural products.[citation needed]
The Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) between the governments of the United States and Panama was signed on October 27, 1982. The treaty protects US investment and assists Panama in its efforts to develop its economy by creating conditions more favorable for US private investment and thereby strengthening the development of its private sector. The BIT was the first such treaty signed by the US in the Western Hemisphere.[112] APanama–United States Trade Promotion Agreement (TPA) was signed in 2007, approved by Panama on July 11, 2007, and by US President Obama on October 21, 2011, and the agreement entered into force on October 31, 2012.[113]
Population pyramid, 2020Panama's population, 1961–2003
Panama had an estimated population of 4,351,267 in 2021.[9][10] The proportion of the population aged less than 15 in 2010 was 29 percent. 64.5 percent of the population was between 15 and 65, with 6.6 percent of the population 65 years or older.[114]
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. Updates on reimplementing the Graph extension, which will be known as the Chart extension, can be found onPhabricator and onMediaWiki.org.
More than half the population lives in the Panama City–Colón metropolitan corridor, which spans several cities. Panama's urban population exceeds 75 percent, making Panama's population the most urbanized in Central America.[116]
In 2010 the population was 65 percentMestizo (mixed white, Native American), 12.3 percent Native American, 9.2 percent Black or African descent, 6.8 percent mulatto, and 6.7 percent White.[11][117]
Most Afro-Panamanians live on the Panama–Colón metropolitan area, the Darién Province,La Palma, andBocas del Toro Province. Areas in Panama City with significant Afro-Panamian influence Rio Abajo and Casco Viejo.[119][120] Black Panamanians are descendants of African slaves brought to the Americas in theAtlantic slave trade. The second wave of black people brought to Panama came from the Caribbean during the construction of the Panama Canal.
Panama also has a considerable Chinese and Indian population brought to work on the canal during its construction. MostChinese Panamanians reside in the province ofChiriquí[citation needed] and Chinese Panamanians compose 4% of the population of Panama.[73][74] Europeans andWhite Panamanians are a minority in Panama forming 6.7% of the population. Panama is also home to a small Arab community that hasmosques and practices Islam, as well as a Jewish community and many synagogues.
Spanish is the official and dominant language. The Spanish spoken in Panama is known as Panamanian Spanish. About 93 percent of the population speak Spanish as their first language. Many citizens who hold jobs at international levels, or at business corporations, speak both English and Spanish. About 14 percent of Panamanians speak English;[121] this number is expected to rise because Panama now requires English classes in its public schools.[122] Native languages, such asNgäbere, are spoken throughout the country, mostly in their native territories. Over 400,000 Panamanians keep their native languages and customs.[123] About 4 percent speak French and 1 percent speak Arabic.[124]
Christianity is the main religion in Panama. An official survey carried out by the government estimated in 2015 that 63.2% of the population, or 2,549,150 people, identifies itself asRoman Catholic, and 25% asevangelical Protestant, or 1,009,740.[2]
TheBaháʼí Faith community in Panama is estimated at 2% of the national population, or about 60,000[125] including about 10% of theGuaymí population.[126]
During the 16th century, education in Panama was provided byJesuits.Public education began in Panama soon after it seceded from Colombia in 1903. The first efforts were guided by a paternalistic view of the goals of education, as evidenced in comments made in a 1913 meeting of the First Panamanian Educational Assembly, "The cultural heritage given to the child should be determined by the social position he will or should occupy. For this reason education should be different in accordance with the social class to which the student should be related." This elitist focus changed rapidly under US influence.[128]
In 2010, it was estimated that 94.1 percent of the population was literate (94.7 percent of males and 93.5 percent of females).[129] Education in Panama iscompulsory for all children between ages 6 and 15. In recent decades, school enrollment at all levels, but especially at upper levels, has increased significantly. Panama participates in thePISA exams, but due to debts and unsatisfactory exam results, it postponed participation until 2018.[130]
Dance is typical of the diverse cultures in Panama. The local folklore can be experienced at a multitude of festivals, through dances and traditions handed down from generation to generation.[132] Local cities host livereggae en español,reggaeton,haitiano (compas),jazz,blues,salsa,reggae, androck music performances.[citation needed]
Handicraft
Outside Panama City, regional festivals take place throughout the year featuring local musicians and dancers. Panama's blended culture is reflected in traditional products, such aswoodcarvings, ceremonial masks andpottery, as well as in Panama's architecture, cuisine and festivals. In earlier times, baskets were woven for utilitarian uses, but now many villages rely almost exclusively on income from the baskets they produce for tourists.
An example of undisturbed, unique culture in Panama is that of theGuna who are known formolas.Mola is the Guna word for blouse, but the termmola has come to mean the elaborate embroidered panels made by Guna women, that make up the front and back of a Guna woman's blouse. They are several layers of cloth, varying in color, that are loosely stitched together, made using a reverseappliqué process.
The Christmas parade, known asEl desfile de Navidad, is celebrated in the capital, Panama City. This holiday is celebrated on December 25. The floats in the parade are decorated in the Panamanian colors, and women wear dresses calledpollera and men dress in traditional montuno. In addition, the marching band in the parade, consisting of drummers, keeps crowds entertained. In the city, a big Christmas tree is lit with Christmas lights, and everybody surrounds the tree and sings Christmas carols.[133]
Since Panama's cultural heritage is influenced by many ethnicities the traditional cuisine of the country includes ingredients from many cultures, from all over the world:a mix of African, Spanish, and Native American techniques, dishes, and ingredients, reflecting its diverse population. Since Panama is a land bridge between two continents, it has a large variety of tropical fruits, vegetables and herbs that are used in native cooking.The famous fish market known as the "Mercado de Mariscos" offers fresh seafood andCeviche, a seafood dish. Small shops along the street which are called kiosco andEmpanada, which is a typical latinamerican pastry, including a variety of different ingredients, either with meat or vegetarian, mostly fried. Another kind of pastry is thepastelito, with the only difference in comparison toempanadas is that they are bigger.[citation needed]
Typical Panamanian foods are mild-flavored, without the pungency of some of Panama's Latin American and Caribbean neighbors. Common ingredients aremaize,rice,wheat flour,plantains,yuca (cassava), beef, chicken, pork and seafood.
Traditional clothing
A couple dancing Panamanian Cumbia
Panamanian men's traditional clothing, calledmontuno, consists of white cotton shirts, trousers and woven straw hats.
The traditional women's clothing is thepollera. It originated in Spain in the 16th century, and by the early 1800s it was typical in Panama, worn by female servants, especially wet nurses (De Zarate 5). Later, it was adopted by upper-class women.
Apollera is made of "cambric" or "fine linen" (Baker 177). It is white, and is usually about 13 yards of material.
The originalpollera consists of a ruffled blouse worn off the shoulders and a skirt with gold buttons. The skirt is also ruffled, so that when it is lifted up, it looks like a peacock's tail or amantilla fan. The designs on the skirt and blouse are usually flowers or birds. Two large matchingpom poms (mota) are on the front and back, four ribbons hang from the front and back from the waist, five gold chains (caberstrillos) hang from the neck to the waist, a gold cross or medallion on a black ribbon is worn as achoker, and a silk purse is worn at the waistline. Earrings (zaricillos) are usually gold or coral. Slippers usually match the color of thepollera. Hair is usually worn in a bun, held by three large gold combs that have pearls (tembleques) worn like a crown. Qualitypollera can cost up to $10,000, and may take a year to complete.
Today, there are different types ofpolleras; thepollera de gala consists of a short-sleeved ruffle skirt blouse, two full-length skirts and apetticoat. Girls weartembleques[134] in their hair. Gold coins and jewelry are added to the outfit. Thepollera montuna is a daily dress, with a blouse, a skirt with a solid color, a single gold chain, and pendant earrings and a natural flower in the hair. Instead of an off-the-shoulder blouse it is worn with a fitted white jacket that has shoulder pleats and a flared hem.[135]
Traditional clothing in Panama can be worn in parades, where the females and males do a traditional dance. Females gently sway and twirl their skirts, while men hold their hats in their hands and dance behind the females.
The first literature relating to Panama can be dated to 1535, with a modern literary movement appearing from the mid-19th century onwards
Sports
Four-weight world boxing champion Roberto Durán
In a 2013 survey, 75% of Panamanians saidfootball (soccer) was their favorite sport, 19% said baseball, 4% boxing and 2% gymnastics.[136]
Football is the most popular sport in Panama. The top tier of domestic Panamanian football,Liga Panameña de Fútbol, was founded in 1988. Themen's national team appeared at theFIFA World Cup for the first time in2018, appearing in group G, facingBelgium,England andTunisia. However, the team lost all three games, failing to advance past the group stage.
Baseball is the second most popular sport in Panama. ThePanamanian Professional Baseball League is the country's professional winter league. It was first held in 1946, but had multiple interruptions spanning several decades. ThePanama national baseball team has earned one silver medal and two bronze medals at theBaseball World Cup. At least140 Panamanian players have played professional baseball in the United States, more than any other Central American country.[137]
Basketball is also popular in Panama. There are regional teams as well as a squad that competes internationally.
Other non-traditional sports in the country have had great importance such as thetriathlon that has captured the attention of many athletes nationwide and the country has hosted international competitions.Flag football has also been growing in popularity in both men and women and with international participation in world of this discipline being among the best teams in the world, the sport was introduced by Americans residing in the Canal Zone for veterans and retirees who even had a festival called the Turkey Ball. Other popular sports areAmerican football,rugby,field hockey,softball, and other amateur sports, includingskateboarding,BMX, andsurfing, because the many beaches of Panama such as Santa Catalina and Venao that have hosted events the likes of ISA World Surfing Games.
^Department of State, United States of America (1987) [Signed at Washington on September 7, 1977. Entered into force October 1, 1979.]."Panama Canal Treaty".United States Treaties and Other International Agreements. Vol. 33. United States Department of State. p. 55. 33 UST 39; TIAS 10030.Archived from the original on January 24, 2024. RetrievedSeptember 13, 2020.Upon entry into force of this Treaty, the United States Government agencies known as the Panama Canal Company and the Canal Zone Government shall cease to operate within the territory of the Republic of Panama that formerly constituted the Canal Zone.
^Mayo, J. (2004).La Industria prehispánica de conchas marinas en Gran Coclé, Panamá. Diss. U Complutense de Madrid, pp. 9–10.
^Piperno, D. R. (1984).The Application of Phytolith Analysis to the Reconstruction of Plant Subsistence and Environments in Prehistoric Panama. Dissertation, Temple University. Philadelphia, vol. 8 pp. 21–43.
^Arango Durling, Virginia (1999).La inmigración prohibida en Panamá y sus prejuicios raciales [Prohibited immigration in Panamá and its racial prejudices] (in Spanish). Panamá: Publipan.LCCN2001388757.
^Müller-Schwarze, Nina K. (2015).The Blood of Victoriano Lorenzo: An Ethnography of the Cholos of Northern Coclé Province. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland Press.
^Mon Pinzón, Ramón Arturo (1979).Historia de la Migración China Durante la Construcción del Ferrocarril de Panamá. Masters Thesis. México: El Colegio de México.
^Zárate, Abdiel (November 9, 2003). "Muertos y desaparecidos durante la época militar." Extra-centennial issue ofLa Prensa.
^"Panama".World Council of Churches: WCC Member Churches. World Council of Churches. January 1, 2006. Archived fromthe original on July 8, 2017. RetrievedJuly 1, 2008.
Diaz Espino, Ovidio,How Wall Street Created a Nation, Four Walls Eight Windows, 2001.ISBN1-56858-196-3
Gropp, Arthur E.Libraries and Archives of Panama: with Information on Private Libraries, Bookbinding, Bookselling, and Printing. New Orleans: Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University of Louisiana, 1941.
Harding, Robert C.,The History of Panama, Greenwood Publishing, 2006.
Harding, Robert C.,Military Foundations of Panamanian Politics, Transaction Publishers, 2001.ISBN0-393-02696-5
Joster, R.M. and Sanchez, Guillermo,In the Time of the Tyrants, Panama: 1968–1990, W.W. Norton & Company, 1990.
Porras, Ana Elena,Cultura de la Interoceanidad: Narrativas de Identidad Nacional de Panama (1990–2002), Editorial Carlos Manuel Gasteazoro, 2005.ISBN9962-53-131-4
Serrano, Damaris,La Nación Panamena en sus Espacios: Cultura Popular, Resistencia y Globalización, Editorial Mariano Arosemena, 2005.ISBN9962-659-01-9
Villarreal, Melquiades,Esperanza o Realidad: Fronteras de la Identidad Panamena, Editorial Mariano Arosemena, 2004.ISBN9962-601-80-0
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