Pan-Asianism (also known asAsianism orGreater Asianism) is an ideology aimed at creating a political and economic unity amongAsian peoples. Various theories and movements of Pan-Asianism have been proposed, particularly fromEast,South andSoutheast Asia. The motive for the movement was in opposition to the values ofWestern imperialism andcolonialism, and thatAsian values were superior toEuropean values.[1]
The concept of Asianism inJapan and China has changed during the early 20th century from a foreign-imposed and negatively received, to a self-referential and embraced concept, according to historian Torsten Weber.[2]
The concept of a unified Asia under Japanese leadership had its roots dating back to the 16th century. For example,Toyotomi Hideyoshi proposed to make China, Korea, and Japan into "one". Moreover, Hideyoshi had further planned to expand into India, the Philippines, and other islands in the Pacific.[3][4]: 99-100
Originally, Japanese Pan-Asianism believed that Asians shared a common heritage and must therefore collaborate in defeating their Western colonial masters. However, Japanese Asianism mostly focused on East Asian territories, with occasional references to South East Asia and West Asia.[5]
The first lasting pan-Asianist organisation started in Japan. In 1877, inspired byŌkubo Toshimichi's promise to Chinese statesmanLi Hongzhang to promote Chinese-language schools in Japan as a channel of mutual understanding, a Pan-Asianist body was established in Japan known as Shin'akai (Promoting Asia Society), followed by the more successful Kōakai (Raising Asia Society) in 1880. Both focused on the promotion of mutual understanding through providing language education, setting up schools in Japan for teaching Chinese and Korean languages, as well as branches in Korean and Chinese cities. China's envoys to Japan and Korean reformers held membership, and even two diplomats from the Ottoman Empire. The Society used Classical Chinese as the common language of East Asian Pan-Asianists. Japanese Pan-Asianism before 1895 was characterized by an egalitarian view on relations between China, Korea and Japan; in order to avoid the accusation that Japan sought to 'lead' Asia, the Kōakai changed its name to the "Asia Association."[6]
Pan-Asianist ideologues included Tokichi Tarui (1850–1922) who argued for equal Japan-Korea unionization for cooperative defence against the European powers,[7] andKentaro Oi (1843–1922) who attempted to push social reforms in Korea and establish a constitutional government in Japan.[citation needed] Pan-Asian thought in Japan was further popularized following the defeat ofRussia in theRusso-Japanese War (1904–1905). This sparked interest from Indian poetsRabindranath Tagore andSri Aurobindo and Chinese politicianSun Yat-sen.[citation needed]
The growing official interest in broader Asian concerns was shown in the establishment of facilities for Indian Studies. In 1899,Tokyo Imperial University set up a chair inSanskrit andKawi, with a further chair incomparative religion being set up in 1903. In this environment, a number of Indianstudents came to Japan in the early twentieth century, founding theOriental Youngmen's Association in 1900. Their anti-British political activity caused consternation to the Indian Government, following a report in theLondonSpectator.
Okakura Kakuzō, a scholar and art critic, also praised the superiority of Asian values upon Japanese victory of the Russo-Japanese War:[8]
TheHimalayas divide, only to accentuate, two mighty civilisations, the Chinese with itscommunism ofConfucius, and the Indian with itsindividualism of theVedas. But not even the snowy barriers can interrupt for one moment that broad expanse of love for the Ultimate and Universal, which is the common thought-inheritance of every Asiatic race, enabling them to produce all the great religions of the world, and distinguishing them from those maritime peoples of theMediterranean and theBaltic, who love to dwell on the Particular, and to search out the means, not the end, of life.[9]
In this, Kakuzō was utilising the Japanese concept ofsangoku, which existed inJapanese culture before the concept of Asia became popularised.Sangoku literally means the "three countries":Honshu (the largest island of Japan),Kara (China) andTenjiku (India).[10]
However, Japanese Pan-Asianism evolved into a more nationalist ideology that prioritized Japan's interests. This was evident by the growth of secret societies such asBlack Ocean Society and theBlack Dragon Society, which committed criminal activities to ensure the success of Japanese expansionism. Exceptionally,Ryōhei Uchida (1874–1937), who was a member of the Black Dragon Society, was a Japan-Korea unionist and supportedFilipino andChinese revolutions. In addition, Asian territories were seen as reservoirs of economic resources[11][12] and outlets for the Emperor's "glory" to be displayed. These were evident in government policies such as theHakkō ichiu andGreater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere agendas.[13] Even Kakuzō was critical of Japan's expansionism after the Russo-Japanese War, viewing it as no different than Western expansionism. He expected other Asians to call them "embodiments of the White Disaster".[14][15]
Historian Torsten Weber compares these contradictions to theMonroe Doctrine, which opposed European imperialism to foster the unimpeded growth of American imperialism.[5]
First president of the Republic of ChinaSun Yat-sen was a proponent of Pan-Asianism. He said that Asia was the "cradle of the world's oldest civilisation" and that "even the ancient civilisations of the West, of Greece and Rome, had their origins on Asiatic soil." He thought that it was only in recent times that Asians "gradually degenerated and become weak."[17] Sun Yat-sen considered Japan and China to be both members of the "Yellow race" and equally threatened from imperialists, and urged Japan to assist China in repealing the Unequal Treaties. In the Russo-Japanese War, Sun had interpreted the Japanese victory as a victory for Asians; as early as 1913, he had attempted to form a pan-Asian alliance with Japanese Prime Minister Katsura Tarō to counter Anglo-Saxon and French imperialism, which he considered to be the principal threats in the world.[16] For Sun, "Pan-Asianism is based on the principle of the Rule of Right, and justifies the avenging of wrongs done to others." He advocated overthrowing the Western "Rule of Might" and "seeking a civilisation of peace and equality and the emancipation of all races."[18] Sun, despite his consistent praise of Japan as a cultural partner,[19] questioned whether they would follow the path of exploitation like Western powers in the future in his final years.[20]
From a Chinese perspective, Japanese Pan-Asianism was interpreted as a competing ideology toSinocentrism as well as rationalization of Japanese imperialism (cf.Twenty-One Demands).[5] Nonetheless, Chinese Pan-Asianism emerged and was equally as self-centered as its Japanese counterpart. Its success was limited by China's political instability and weak international status.[5]
Since the 2000s, Chinese scholars have a more nuanced view of Pan-Asianism, especially those of the Japanese variety. Historian Wang Ping proposed an evaluation system based on chronology: co-operative Classical Asianism (until 1898), expansive Greater Asianism (until 1928), and the invasive Japanese ‘Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere’ (until 1945).[5]
Slovenian philosopherSlavoj Žižek stated that China has been following pan-Asianism for over a century. He regarded Chinese thinkerWang Hui as the main promoter of acommunist pan-Asianism. Wang Hui advocated that ifsocial democracy is grounded in Asian civilizational traditions, it renders it possible to avoid the Western type ofmulti-party democracy and enact a social order with much stronger people's participation.[21]
Ties betweenBritish India and Japan were pursued by some as a way of pushing against British rule, with revolutionaries such asSubhas Chandra Bose meeting with Japanese leaders, though British intelligence services sought to limit these interactions.[22]
The 1951 founding of theAsian Games, now the second-largest sporting event behind theOlympic Games,[23] was partially inspired by a newly independent India's vision for Asian solidarity and the emergence of the post-colonial world order.[24][25] However, Indian pan-Asianism faded away after the fallout of the1962 India-China War.[26]
Pan-Asianism inTurkey has not yet been fully explored,[27] it is not known how many people hold this ideology and how widespread it is. However,Turks who supported Japan in theSecond World War and have the Pan-Asianism ideology use a redesigned Turkish flag based on Japan's flag in the Second World War.[28][29]
The idea of "Asian values" is somewhat of a resurgence of Pan-Asianism.[citation needed] One foremost enthusiast of the idea was the former Prime Minister ofSingapore,Lee Kuan Yew. InIndia,Ram Manohar Lohia dreamed of a united socialist Asia.[30] A number of other Asian political leaders fromSun Yat-sen in the 1910s and 20s toMahathir Mohamad in the 1990s similarly argue that the political models and ideologies ofEurope lack values and concepts found in Asian societies and philosophies. European values such as individual rights and freedoms would not be suited for Asian societies in this extreme formulation of Pan-Asianism.[citation needed]
