Pallas's cat (Otocolobus manul), also known as themanul, is a small wildcat with long and dense light grey fur, and rounded ears set low on the sides of the head. Its head-and-body length ranges from 46 to 65 cm (18 to 26 in) with a 21 to 31 cm (8.3 to 12.2 in) long bushy tail. It is well camouflaged and adapted to the coldcontinental climate in its native range, which receives little rainfall and experiences a wide range of temperatures.
Due to its widespread range and assumed large population, Pallas's cat has been listed asLeast Concern on theIUCN Red List since 2020. Some population units are threatened bypoaching, prey base decline due to rodent control programs, andhabitat fragmentation as a result ofmining and infrastructure projects.
Pallas's cat has been kept inzoos since the early 1950s. As of 2018,[update] 60 zoos inEurope, Russia, North America andJapan participate in Pallas's catcaptive breeding programs.
Pallas's cat'sfur is light grey with pale yellowish-ochre or pale yellowish-reddish hues.[7] Some hair tips are white and some blackish. Its fur is greyer and denser with fewer markings visible in winter than in the summer.[15]: 668–669 The forehead and top of the head are light grey with small black spots. It has two black zigzag lines on the cheeks running from the corner of the eyes to thejaw joints.[7] Its chin,whiskers, lower and upper lips are white.[15]: 669 It has narrow black stripes on the back, consisting of five to seven darktransversal lines across the lower back.[7] Its grey tail has seven narrow black rings and a black tip.[15]: 669 Theunderfur is 40 mm (1.6 in) long and 19 μm thick, and theguard hairs up to 69 mm (2.7 in) long and 93 μm thick on the back. Its fur is soft and dense with up to 9,000 hairs/cm2 (58,000 hairs/in2).[15]: 666
Pallas's cat's ears are grey with a yellowish tinge on the back and a darker rim, but with whitish hair in front and in the earpinnae. Its rounded ears are set low on the side, such that it can peer over an object and show only a relatively small part of the head above the eyes without depressing the ears. This can give its face a look of ferocity and unrest.[11] Its eyes are encircled by white. Theiris is yellowish, and itspupils contract to small circular disks in sunlight.[11]: 301 Among theFelinae, it shares this trait of round pupils withPuma,Herpailurus andAcinonyx species.[16]
Pallas's cat is about the size of adomestic cat (Felis catus).[7] Its stocky posture with the long and dense fur make it appear stout and plush. Its head-to-body is 46 to 65 cm (18 to 26 in) long with a 21 to 31 cm (8.3 to 12.2 in) long tail. It weighs 2.5 to 4.5 kg (5 lb 8 oz to 9 lb 15 oz).[17]Its body is stout, and itsskull is rounded with a shortnasal bone, an enlargedcranial part and roundedzygomatic arches. Itsorbits are large and directed forward. Its legs are short with short and sharpretractile claws.[18]
The skull of males is 87–95 mm (3.4–3.7 in) long and 66–74 mm (2.6–2.9 in) wide at the base. Females have a 84–96 mm (3.3–3.8 in) long and 65–68 mm (2.6–2.7 in) wide skull.[15]: 671–674 The lowercarnassial teeth are powerful, and the upper carnassials are short and massive. The first pair of upperpremolars is absent. The dental formula is3.1.2.13.1.2.1 × 2 = 28.[18] It has abite force at thecanine tip of 155.4newtons and abite force quotient at the canine tip of 113.8.[19]
Pallas's cat's range extends from the Caucasus eastward to Central Asia, Mongolia and adjacent parts ofDzungaria and theTibetan Plateau. It inhabits montaneshrublands andgrasslands, rockyoutcrops,screeslopes and ravines in areas, where the continuous snow cover is below 15–20 cm (6–8 in).[15]In the southwestern part of its range, the habitat of Pallas's cat is affected by cold and dry winters, and moderate to low rainfall in warm summers.[21] The typical vegetation in this part consists of smallshrubs,sagebrush (Artemisia),Festuca andStipa grasses.[15]In the central part of its range, it inhabits hilly landscapes, highplateaus andintermontane valleys that are covered bydry steppe orsemi-desert vegetation, such as low shrubs andxerophytic grasses.[22] Thecontinental climate in this region exhibits a range of 80 °C (140 °F) between the highest and lowest air temperatures, dropping to −50 °C (−58 °F) in winter.[15]: 684–688
TheGreater Caucasus region is considered climatically suitable for Pallas's cat.[21] InArmenia, an individual was killed nearVedi in the mountains ofArarat Province in the late 1920s.[18] In January 2020, an individual was sighted about 140 km (90 mi) farther north inTavush Province; the habitat at this location transitions from semi-desert to montane steppe at an elevation of about 570 m (1,900 ft).[23] Records inAzerbaijan are limited to a Pallas's cat skin found inKarabakh and a sighting of an individual inJulfa District, both in the late 20th century.[24]
Pallas's cat inhabits rocky slopes in the Koh-i-Baba Range of the Hindu Kush.
On the Iranian Plateau, two Pallas's cats were encountered near theAras River in northwestern Iran before the 1970s.[15] In the area, an individual was captured at an elevation of about 1,500 m (5,000 ft) nearAzarshahr inEast Azerbaijan Province in 2008.[24] In the same year, acamera trap recorded a Pallas's cat on the southern slopes of the centralAlborz Mountains inKhojir National Park shortly after heavy snowfall.[25] Farther east in the Alborz Mountains, an individual was recorded among rocks at an elevation of 2,441 m (8,009 ft) in 2016.[26] In theAladagh andKopet Dag Mountains, Pallas's cat was recorded inside and in the vicinity of protected areas.[27] In the south of theZagros Mountains, an individual was caught in acorral used bytranshumant pastoralists inAbadeh County in 2012. The surrounding area consists of rocky steppe habitat dominated by mountain almond (Prunus scoparia),Astragalus andArtemisia.[28]In the Hindu Kush, a Pallas's cat was observed sunbathing at the fringe of a rocky high-elevation plain nearDasht-e Nawar inAfghanistan'sKoh-i-Baba range in April 2007.[29] Pallas's cat was also photographed multiple times inBamyan Province between 2015 and 2017.[21]InPakistan'sQurumber National Park inGilgit-Baltistan, an individual was recorded on aridge in ajuniper dominated forest at 3,445 m (11,302 ft) in July 2012.[30]
Pallas's cat occurs in alpine pastures of the upper Marshyangdi river valley in the central Himalayas.
The presence of Pallas's cat in theIndian Himalayas was first reported inLadakh's upperIndus Valley in 1991.[47] InChangthang Wildlife Sanctuary, Pallas's cats were sighted close by riverbanks at elevations of 4,202 and 4,160 m (13,786 and 13,648 ft) in 2013 and 2015.[48] InGangotri National Park, a Pallas's cat was photographed in rockyalpine scrub at 4,800 m (15,700 ft) in 2019.[49] InSikkim, an individual was observed on a rocky slope at an elevation of 5,073 m (16,644 ft) in the vicinity ofTso Lhamo Lake in 2007.[50] InArunachal Pradesh, a Pallas's cat was recorded in September 2024 in the rugged high-elevation rangelands ofTawang andWest Kameng districts.[51]
Pallas's cat issolitary.[15] Of nine Pallas's cat kittens observed in captivity, only the two malesscent marked by sprayingurine.[57]
Pallas's cat uses caves, rock crevices andmarmot burrows as shelter.[15]: 690–691 In central Mongolia, 29 Pallas's cats were fitted withradio collars between June 2005 and October 2007. They used 101dens during this time, including 39 winter dens, 42 summer dens and 20 dens for raising kittens. The summer and winter dens usually had one entrance with a diameter of 15.6 to 23.4 cm (6.1 to 9.2 in). They resided in the summer dens for 2–21 days, and in the winter dens for 2–28 days. Summer and maternal dens were close to rocky habitats with little direct sunlight, whereas winter dens were closer toravines.[58] Thehome ranges of 16 females varied from 7.4 to 125.2 km2 (2.9 to 48.3 sq mi). The home ranges of nine males varied from 20.9 to 207.0 km2 (8.1 to 79.9 sq mi) andoverlapped those of one to four females and partly also those of other males. The sizes of their home ranges decreased in winter.[40]
In an unprotected area in central Mongolia, Pallas's cats were mainlycrepuscular between May and August, but active by day from September to November.[59] Pallas's cats recorded in four study areas in the western Mongolian Altai mountains were also active during the day, but with a lower frequency at sites where livestock was present.[60]
Pallas's cat is a highly specialised predator of small mammals, which it catches by stalking or ambushing near exits of burrows. It also pulls outrodents with its paws from shallow burrows. In the Altai Mountains, remains oflong-tailed ground squirrel (Urocitellus undulatus),flat-skulled shrew (Sorex roboratus),Pallas's pika (Ochotona pallasi) and bird feathers were found near breeding burrows of Pallas's cats. In Transbaikal, it preys onDaurian pika (Ochotona dauurica),steppe pika (O. pusilla),Daurian ground squirrel (Spermophilus dauricus) and young ofred-billed chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax).[15]Scat samples of Pallas's cat collected in the bufferzone of Khustain Nuruu National Park in central Mongolia contained foremost remains of Daurian pika,Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus),Mongolian silver vole (Alticola semicanus) and remains ofpasserine birds,beetles andgrasshoppers.[61]Brandt's vole (Lasiopodomys brandtii) dominated in the diet of Pallas's cats in Mongolia'sSükhbaatar Province after theirruptive growth of this vole population during 2017 to 2020.[62]Scat found in Shey-Phoksundo National Park contained remains ofpika species and ofwoolly hare (Lepus oiostolus).[53] Remains of acypriniform fish were found in Pallas's cat scat inGongga Mountain Nature Reserve.[63]
A captive male Pallas's cat housed under natural lighting conditions showed increased aggressive and territorial behaviour at the onset of the breeding season, lasting from September to December. Itsblood contained three times moretestosterone than in the non-breeding season, and itsejaculate was more concentrated with more normalsperm forms and a highermotility of sperm.[66]
In the wild, the female gives birth to alitter of two to six kittens between the end of April and late May. The newborn kittens' fur is fuzzy, and their eyes are closed until the age of about two weeks.[15]: 693 A newborn male kitten born in a zoo weighed 89 g (3.1 oz), measured 12.3 cm (4.8 in) and had a 5.5 cm (2.2 in) long tail.[64]
In central Mongolia, seven females with kittens were observed using 20 dens for 4–60 days. Their maternal dens were either among rocks, or in former burrows of theTarbagan marmot (Marmota sibirica), and had at least two entrances.[58] In Iran, a Pallas's cat was observed using cavities of aged Greek juniper (Juniperus excelsa) as breeding dens for a litter of four kittens.[67]
Two-month-old kittens weigh 500–600 g (17.6–21.2 oz), and their fur gradually grows longer. They start hunting at the age of about five months and reach adult size by the age of six to seven months.[15]: 694
In China, Mongolia and Russia, Pallas's cat was once hunted for its fur in large numbers of more than 10,000 skins annually. In China and the formerSoviet Union, hunting of Pallas's cat decreased in the 1970s when it became legally protected. Mongolia exported 9,185 skins in 1987, but international trade has ceased since 1988.[68] However, domestic trade of its skins and body parts for medicinal purposes continues in the country, and it may be hunted throughout the year.[69]
Cases ofherding dogs killing Pallas's cats were reported in Iran, Kazakhstan and the Altai Republic.[27][34][22]Pallas's cats have also fallen victim intraps set for small mammals in Kazakhstan and in the Altai Republic. In Transbaikal, Pallas's cat is threatened bypoaching. In Mongolia, the use of therodenticidebromadiolone in the frame of rodent control measures in the early 21st century poisoned the prey base ofcarnivores andraptors.[22]In theSanjiangyuan region of the Tibetan Plateau, 54,147 km2 (20,906+1⁄4 sq mi) of grassland was poisoned between 2005 and 2009, leading to an estimated loss of 50,000–80,000 tonnes (55,000–88,000 short tons) of pikabiomass.[70]Pallas's cat may be negatively affected by habitat fragmentation due to mining and infrastructure projects.[2]
Pallas's cat on the Russian Federation two-ruble coin, silver, reverse.
On theIUCN Red List, Pallas's cat is classified as Least Concern since 2020 because of its wide-spread range and assumed large global population. It is listed inCITES Appendix II. Hunting it is prohibited in all range countries except Mongolia. Since 2009, it is legally protected in Afghanistan, where all hunting and trade with its body parts is banned.[2]On the Mongolian Red List of Mammals, it is listed asNear Threatened since 2006.[69] In China, it is listed asEndangered.[71] In Turkmenistan, it is proposed to be listed asCritically Endangered due to the scarcity of contemporary records.[72]
Zoos in the former Soviet Union received most of the wild-caught Pallas's cats from the Transbaikal region and a few from Mongolia.Moscow Zoo initiated astudbook for Pallas's cat in 1997. Since 2004, Pallas's cat international studbook has been managed by theRoyal Zoological Society of Scotland, which also coordinates the captive breeding program for Pallas's cat within theEuropean Endangered Species Programme. As of 2018, 177 Pallas's cats were kept in 60 zoos in Europe, Russia, North America and Japan.[76]
Pallas's cat is featured in a RussianInternet meme known as "Pet the cat" introduced in 2008; the meme is a picture of a Pallas's cat that invites the reader to pet it in the image's caption.[78][79] In 2012, Pallas's cat became the mascot of Moscow Zoo.[80]
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