The namePakistan was coined byChoudhry Rahmat Ali, aPakistan Movement activist, who in January 1933 first published it (originally as "Pakstan") in a pamphletNow or Never, using it as anacronym.[21][22][23] Rahmat Ali explained: "It is composed of letters taken from the names of all our homelands, Indian and Asian,Panjab,Afghania,Kashmir,Sindh, andBaluchistan." He added, "Pakistan is both aPersian andUrdu word... It means the land of the Paks, the spiritually pure and clean."[24] Etymologists note thatپاکpāk, is 'pure' in Persian andPashto and the Persian suffixـستان-stan means 'land' or 'place of'.[22]
Rahmat Ali's concept of Pakistan only related to the northwestern area of theIndian subcontinent. He also proposed the name "Banglastan" for the Muslim areas ofBengal and "Osmanistan" forHyderabad State, as well as a political federation between the three.[25]
Following the decline of the Indus Valley civilisation, semi-nomadicIndo-European Aryans migrated into theIndian subcontinent around 2000 BCE, perhaps by way of theKhyber Pass. They fused with the indigenous Harappan culture of the Indus Valley, and elements of the pre-Aryan spiritual traditions were assimilated into the developing Vedic tradition.[35] This cultural milieu shaped theGandhara civilization, which flourished at the crossroads of India, Central Asia, and the Middle East, connectingtrade routes and absorbing cultural influences from diverse civilizations.[36] By the early Vedic period, parts of the Indus region in present-day Pakistan were populated by numerous tribes that were beginning to coalesce into chieftain-led clans and early kingdoms.[37] During this period, theVedas, the oldestscriptures ofHinduism, were composed.[38][h]
The western regions of Pakistanbecame part ofAchaemenid Empire around 517 BCE.[40] In 326 BCE,Alexander the Great conquered the region by defeating various local rulers, most notably, the KingPorus, atJhelum.[41] Among the major powers that ruled the region were theMauryas (322–185 BCE), during whichAshoka the Great extended the empire.[42][43] TheIndo-Greek Kingdom founded byDemetrius of Bactria (180–165 BCE) includedGandhara andPunjab and reached its greatest extent underMenander (165–150 BCE), prospering theGreco-Buddhist culture in the region.[44][45][46]Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of higher education in the world, which was established during the late Vedic period in the 6th century BCE.[47] The ancient university was documented by the invading forces of Alexander the Great and was also recorded by Chinese pilgrims in the 4th or 5th century CE.[48][49][50] At its zenith, theRai dynasty (489–632 CE) ruledSindh and the surrounding territories.[51]
Medieval period
The Arab conquerorMuhammad ibn Qasim conquered Sindh and some regions of Punjab in 711 CE.[52] The Pakistan government's official chronology claims this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid.[53] The early medieval period (642–1219 CE) witnessed the spread of Islam in the region.[54] Before the arrival of Islam beginning in the 8th century, the region of Pakistan was home to a diverse plethora of faiths, includingHinduism,Buddhism,Jainism andZoroastrianism.[55][56] During this period,Sufimissionaries played a pivotal role in converting a majority of the regional population to Islam.[57] Upon the defeat of theTurk andHindu Shahi dynasties which governed theKabul Valley,Gandhara, and western Punjab in the 7th to 11th centuries CE,several successive Muslim empires ruled over the region, including theGhaznavid Empire (975–1187 CE), theGhorid Kingdom, and theDelhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE).[58] TheLodi dynasty, the last of the Delhi Sultanate, was replaced by the Mughal Empire (1526–1857 CE).[59]
The Mughals introduced Persian literature and high culture, establishing the roots ofIndo-Persian culture in the region.[61] In the region of modern-day Pakistan, key cities during the Mughal period wereMultan,Lahore,Peshawar andThatta,[62] which were chosen as the site of impressiveMughal buildings.[63] In the early 16th century, the region remained under theMughal Empire.[64] In the 18th century, the slow disintegration of the Mughal Empire was hastened by the emergence of the rival powers like theMaratha Empire and later theSikh Empire, as well as invasions byNader Shah from Iran in 1739 and theDurrani Empire of Afghanistan in 1759.[7][65] The growing political power of the British in Bengal had not yet reached the territories of modern Pakistan.[66]
By 1942, Britain faced considerable strain duringWorld War II, with India directly threatened by Japanese forces. Britain had pledged voluntary independence for India in exchange for support during the war. However, this pledge included a clause stating that no part of British India would be compelled to join the resulting dominion, which could be interpreted as support for an independent Muslim nation. Congress under the leadership ofMahatma Gandhi launched theQuit India Movement, demanding an immediate end to British rule. In contrast, the Muslim League chose to support theUK's war efforts, thereby nurturing the possibility of establishing a Muslim nation.[91][92]
Thepartition of India: green regions were all part of Pakistan by 1948, and orange ones part of India. The darker-shaded regions represent thePunjab andBengal provinces partitioned by theRadcliffe Line. The grey areas represent some of the keyprincely states that were eventually integrated into India or Pakistan.
The1946 elections saw the Muslim League secure 90 percent of the Muslim seats, supported by the landowners of Sindh and Punjab. This forced the Indian National Congress, initially skeptical of the League's representation of Indian Muslims, to acknowledge its significance.[93] Jinnah's emergence as the voice of the Indian Muslims,[53] compelled the British to consider their stance, despite theirreluctance to partition India. In a final attempt to prevent partition, they proposed theCabinet Mission Plan.[94]
As the Cabinet Mission failed, the British announced their intention to end rule by June 1948.[95][96] Following rigorous discussions involvingViceroy of India,Lord Mountbatten of Burma,Muhammad Ali Jinnah of theAll-India Muslim League, andJawaharlal Nehru of Congress, the formal declaration to partition British India into two independent dominions—namely Pakistan and India—was issued by Mountbatten on the evening of 3 June 1947. In Mountbatten's oval office, the prime ministers of around a dozen major princely states gathered to receive their copies of the plan before its worldwide broadcast. At 7:00 P.M.,All India Radio transmitted the public announcement, starting with the viceroy's address, followed by individual speeches from Nehru, and Jinnah. The founder of PakistanMuhammad Ali Jinnah concluded his address with the sloganPakistan Zindabad (Long Live Pakistan).[97]
In the riots that accompanied the partition in Punjab Province, between 200,000 and 2,000,000 people were killed in what some have described as a retributive genocide between the religions.[101] Around 50,000 Muslim women wereabducted and raped by Hindu and Sikh men, while 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women experienced the same fate at the hands of Muslims.[102] Around 6.5 million Muslims moved from India to West Pakistan and 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from West Pakistan to India.[103] It was the largest mass migration in human history.[104] A subsequent dispute over theprincely state ofJammu and Kashmir eventually sparked theIndo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948.[105]
The creation of Pakistan was never fully accepted by many British leaders includingLord Mountbatten.[110] Mountbatten expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League's idea of Pakistan.[111] Jinnah refused Mountbatten's offer to serve as Governor-General of Pakistan.[112] When Mountbatten was asked byCollins andLapierre if he would have sabotaged Pakistan had he known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis, he replied 'most probably'.[113]
The AmericanCIA film on Pakistan, made in 1950, examines the history and geography of Pakistan.
"You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan. You may belong to any religion or caste or creed – that has nothing to do with the business of the State."
MaulanaShabbir Ahmad Usmani, a respected Deobandialim (scholar) who held the position of Shaykh al-Islam in Pakistan in 1949, andMaulana Mawdudi ofJamaat-i-Islami played key roles in advocating for an Islamic constitution. Mawdudi insisted that the Constituent Assembly declare the "supreme sovereignty of God" and the supremacy of theshariah in Pakistan.[115]
The efforts of Jamaat-i-Islami and theulama led to the passage of theObjectives Resolution in March 1949. This resolution, described by Liaquat Ali Khan as the second most significant step in Pakistan's history, affirmed that "sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust". It was later included as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973.[116]
Democracy faced setbacks due to themartial law imposed by PresidentIskander Mirza, who was succeeded by GeneralAyub Khan. After adopting apresidential system in 1962, Pakistan witnessed significant growth until thesecond war with India in 1965, resulting in an economic downturn and widespread public discontent in 1967.[117][118] In 1969, PresidentYahya Khan consolidated control, but faced a devastatingcyclone in East Pakistan resulting in 500,000 deaths.[119]
Independent researchers estimate that between 300,000 and 500,000 civilians died during this period while the Bangladesh government puts the number of dead at three million,[124] a figure that is now nearly universally regarded as excessively inflated.[125] Some academics such asRudolph Rummel andRounaq Jahan say both sides committed genocide;[126] others such asRichard Sisson and Leo E. Rose believe there was no genocide.[127] In response to India's support for the insurgency in East Pakistan,preemptive strikes on India by Pakistan'sair force,navy, andmarines sparkeda conventional war in 1971 that resulted in an Indian victory and East Pakistan gainingindependence asBangladesh.[128]
TheNational Assembly historically completed its first full five-year term on 15 November 2007.[155] After theassassination of Benazir Bhutto in 2007, the PPP secured themost votes in theelections of 2008, appointing party memberYusuf Raza Gilani as Prime Minister.[156] Threatened withimpeachment, President Musharraf resigned on 18 August 2008, and was succeeded byAsif Ali Zardari.[157] Clashes with thejudicature prompted Gilani's disqualification from theParliament and as the Prime Minister in June 2012.[158] Thegeneral election held in 2013 saw the PML (N) achieve victory,[159] following which Nawaz Sharif was elected as Prime Minister for the third time.[160] In 2018,PTI won thegeneral election andImran Khan became the 22nd Prime Minister.[161] In April 2022,Shehbaz Sharif was elected as prime minister, after Imran Khan lost a no-confidence vote.[162] During2024 general election, PTI-backed independents became the largest bloc,[163] but Shehbaz Sharif was elected prime minister for a second term, as a result of a coalition between PML (N) and PPPP.[164]
Pakistan's diversegeography andclimate host a wide array ofwildlife.[165] Covering 881,913 km2 (340,509 sq mi),[166] Pakistan's size is comparable to France and the UK combined.[167] It ranks as the33rd-largest nation by total area,[168] but this varies based on Kashmir's disputed status. Pakistan boasts a 1,046 km (650 mi) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman,[169][170] and shares land borders totaling 6,774 km (4,209 mi), including 2,430 km (1,510 mi)with Afghanistan, 523 km (325 mi)with China, 2,912 km (1,809 mi)with India, and 909 km (565 mi)with Iran.[171] It has amaritime border with Oman[172] and is separated from Tajikistan via the narrow strip of theWakhan Corridor.[173] Situated at the crossroads of South Asia, the Middle East, and Central Asia,[174] Pakistan's location is geopolitically significant.[175] Geologically, Pakistan straddles the Indus–Tsangpo Suture Zone and theIndian tectonic plate in Sindh and Punjab, while Balochistan and most of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa sit on theEurasian Plate, primarily on theIranian plateau. Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir, along the Indian plate's edge, aresusceptible to powerful earthquakes.[176]
A satellite image showing the topography of Pakistan.[177]
Pakistan's landscapes vary from coastal plains to glaciated mountains, offering deserts, forests, hills, and plateaus.[178] Pakistan is divided into three major geographic areas: the northern highlands, the Indus River plain, and the Balochistan Plateau.[179] The northern highlands feature theKarakoram,Hindu Kush, andPamir mountain ranges, hosting some of the world's highest peaks, including five of the fourteeneight-thousanders (mountain peaks over 8,000 metres or 26,250 feet), notablyK2 (8,611 m or 28,251 ft) andNanga Parbat (8,126 m or 26,660 ft).[180][181] The Balochistan Plateau lies in the west and theThar Desert in the east.[182][183][184] The 1,609 km (1,000 mi) Indus River and its tributaries traverse the nation from Kashmir to the Arabian Sea, sustaining alluvial plains along the Punjab and Sindh regions.[185]
The climate varies from tropical to temperate, with arid conditions in the coastal south. There is a monsoon season with frequent flooding due to heavy rainfall, and a dry season with significantly less rainfall or none at all.[186] Pakistan experiences four distinct seasons: a cool, dry winter from December through February; a hot, dry spring from March through May; the summer rainy season, or southwest monsoon period, from June through September; and the retreating monsoon period of October and November.[187] Rainfall varies greatly from year to year, with patterns of alternate flooding and drought common.[188]
The diverse landscape and climate in Pakistan support a wide range of trees and plants.[189] From coniferousalpine andsubalpine trees likespruce,pine, anddeodar cedar in the northern mountains todeciduous trees likeshisham in theSulaiman Mountains,[186] and palms such ascoconut anddate in the southern regions.[190][191] The western hills boastjuniper,tamarisk, coarse grasses, and scrub plants.[192]Mangrove forests dominate the coastal wetlands in the south.[193] Coniferous forests span altitudes from 1,000 to 4,000 metres (3,300 to 13,100 feet) in most northern and northwestern highlands.[194] In Balochistan's xeric regions, date palms andEphedra are prevalent.[190][195] In Punjab and Sindh's Indus plains, tropical and subtropical dry and moist broadleaf forests as well as tropical and xeric shrublands thrive.[196] Approximately 4.8% or 36,845.6 square kilometres (3,684,560 ha) of Pakistan was forested in 2021.[197][i]
The lack of vegetative cover, severe climate, and grazing impact on deserts have endangered wild animals.[214] Thechinkara is the only animal found in significant numbers inCholistan,[215] with a fewnilgai along the Pakistan–India border and in some parts of Cholistan.[216] Rare animals include thesnow leopard and the blindIndus river dolphin,[186] of which there are believed to be about 1,816 remaining, protected at theIndus Dolphin Reserve in Sindh.[217] In total, 174 species of mammals, 177 species of reptiles, 22 species of amphibians, 198 species of freshwater fish, 668 species of birds, over 5,000 species of insects, and over 5,700 species of plants have been recorded in Pakistan.[199] Pakistan faces deforestation, hunting, and pollution, with a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.42/10, ranking 41st globally out of 172 countries.[218]
Executive: The Prime Minister, typically the leader of themajority rule party or coalition in the National Assembly (the lower house),[234] serves as the country's chief executive and head of government. Responsibilities include forming acabinet,[235] making executive decisions,[230] and appointing senior civil servants, subject to executive confirmation.[236]
Provincial governments: Each of thefour provinces follows a similar governance system, with a directly electedProvincial Assembly choosing theChief Minister, usually from the largest party or coalition. Chief Ministers lead the provincial cabinet and oversee provincial governance.[237][238] TheChief Secretary, appointed by the Prime Minister, heads the provincial bureaucracy.[239] Provincial assemblies legislate and approve the provincial budget, typically presented by the provincial finance minister annually.[238][240] Ceremonial heads of provinces, the Provincial Governors, are appointed by the President based on the binding advice of the Prime Minister.[237][241]
Judicature: The judiciary in Pakistan has two classes: the superior and subordinate judiciary. The superior judiciary includes theSupreme Court of Pakistan,[242]Federal Shariat Court, and fivehigh courts,[243] with the Supreme Court at the top. It's responsible for safeguarding the constitution.[242] Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan have their own court systems.[244][245]
Pakistan, the only country established in the name of Islam,[246] had overwhelming support among Muslims, especially in provinces like theUnited Provinces, where Muslims were a minority.[247] This idea, articulated by the Muslim League, theIslamic clergy, and Jinnah, envisioned anIslamic state.[248] Jinnah, closely associated with theulama, was described upon his death byMaulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani as the greatest Muslim afterAurangzeb, aspiring to unite Muslims worldwide under Islam.[249]
The Objectives Resolution of March 1949 marked the initial step towards this goal, affirming God as the sole sovereign.[116][250] Muslim League leaderChaudhry Khaliquzzaman asserted that Pakistan could only truly become an Islamic state after bringing all believers of Islam into a single political unit.[251] Keith Callard observed that Pakistanis believed in the essential unity of purpose and outlook in the Muslim world, expecting similar views on religion and nationality from Muslims worldwide.[252]
Pakistan's desire for a united Islamic bloc, called Islamistan, wasn't supported by other Muslim governments,[253] though figures like the Grand Mufti of Palestine,Al-Haj Amin al-Husseini, and leaders of theMuslim Brotherhood were drawn to the country. Pakistan's desire for an international organization of Muslim countries was fulfilled in the 1970s when theOrganization of Islamic Conference (OIC) was formed.[254] East Pakistan's Bengali Muslims, opposed to an Islamist state, clashed with West Pakistanis who leaned towards Islamic identity.[255][256] The Islamist partyJamaat-e-Islami backed an Islamic state and opposedBengali nationalism.[257]
After the 1970 general elections, the Parliament crafted the1973 Constitution.[258] It declared Pakistan an Islamic Republic, with Islam as the state religion, and mandated laws to comply with Islamic teachings laid down in theQuran andSunnah and that no law repugnant to such injunctions could be enacted.[259] Additionally, it established institutions like the Shariat Court and theCouncil of Islamic Ideology to interpret and apply Islam.[260]
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto faced opposition under the banner ofNizam-e-Mustafa ("Rule of theProphet"),[261] advocating an Islamic state. Bhutto conceded to some Islamist demands before being ousted in a coup.[262]
General Zia-ul-Haq, after seizing power, committed to establishing an Islamic state and enforcingsharia law.[262] He instituted Shariat judicial courts,[263] and court benches,[264][265] to adjudicate using Islamic doctrine.[266] Zia aligned with Deobandi institutions,[267] exacerbating sectarian tensions with anti-Shia policies.[268]
Most Pakistanis, according to aPew Research Center (PEW) poll, favor Sharia law as the official law,[269] and 94 percent of them identify more with religion than nationality compared to Muslims in other nations.[270]
Since independence, Pakistan has aimed to maintain an independent foreign policy.[282] Pakistan'sforeign policy andgeostrategy focus on the economy, security,national identity, and territorial integrity, as well as building close ties with other Muslim nations.[283] According toHasan Askari Rizvi, a foreign policy expert, "Pakistan highlights sovereign equality of states, bilateralism, mutuality of interests, and non-interference in each other's domestic affairs as the cardinal features of its foreign policy."[284]
TheKashmir conflict remains a major issue between Pakistan and India, with three of theirfour wars fought over it.[286] Due partly to strained relations with India, Pakistan has close ties with Turkey and Iran, both focal points in its foreign policy.[287] Saudi Arabia also holds importance in Pakistan's foreign relations.[288]
Located strategically in the world's major maritime oil supply lines and communicationfiber optic corridors, Pakistan also enjoys proximity to the natural resources of Central Asian countries.[294] Pakistan actively participates in the United Nations with aPermanent Representative representing its positions in international politics.[295] It has advocated for the concept of "enlightened moderation" in the Muslim world.[296] Pakistan is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations,SAARC,ECO,[297][298] and theG20 developing nations.[299]
Pakistan is designated as an "Iron Brother" by China, emphasizing the significance of their close and supportiverelationship.[300] In the 1950s, Pakistan opposed theSoviet Union for geopolitical reasons. During theSoviet–Afghan War in the 1980s, it was a close ally of the United States.[284] Relations with Russia have improved since the end of theCold War,[301] but Pakistan's relationship with the United States has been "on-and-off".[284] Initially a close ally during the Cold War,[302] Pakistan's relations with the US soured in the 1990s due tosanctions over its secretive nuclear program.[303] Since9/11, Pakistan has been a US ally oncounterterrorism, but their relationship has been strained due to diverging interests and mistrust during the20-year war and terrorism issues. Although Pakistan was grantedmajor non-NATO ally status by the U.S. in 2004,[304] it faced accusations of supporting theTaliban insurgents in Afghanistan.[305]
Pakistan does not have formaldiplomatic relations withIsrael; nonetheless, an exchange occurred between the two countries in 2005, with Turkey acting as an intermediary.[306]
Pakistani Prime MinisterHuseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy with Chinese PremierZhou Enlai signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan.[307] Pakistan is host to China's largest embassy.[308]
Pakistan was among the first nations to establish formal diplomatic ties with China,[309] forging a strong relationship since China's1962 conflict with India, culminating in a special bond.[310] During the 1970s, Pakistan acted as an intermediary in U.S.-China rapprochement,[311] facilitating US PresidentRichard Nixon'shistoric visit to China.[312][313] Despite changes in Pakistani governance and regional/global dynamics, China's influence in Pakistan remains paramount.[311] In reciprocation, China stands as Pakistan's largest trading partner, with substantial investment in Pakistani infrastructure, notably theGwadar port.[314] In 2015 alone, they inked 51 agreements and Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) for cooperative efforts.[315] Both nations signed aFree Trade Agreement in 2006,[316] with China making its largest investment in Pakistan's history throughCPEC.[317] Pakistan acts as China's liaison to the Muslim world,[318] and both nations support each other on sensitive issues like Kashmir, Taiwan, Xinjiang, and more.[319]
After Independence, Pakistan vigorously pursued bilateral relations with other Muslim countries.[320] TheAli brothers sought to project Pakistan as the natural leader of the Islamic world, partly due to its significant manpower and military strength.[321]Khaliquzzaman, a prominentMuslim League leader, declared Pakistan's ambition to unite all Muslim countries intoIslamistan, a pan-Islamic entity.[322]
These developments, alongside Pakistan's creation, didn't receive approval from the United States, with British Prime MinisterClement Attlee expressing a hope for India and Pakistan to reunite.[323] However, due to a nationalist awakening in the Arab world at that time, there was little interest in Pakistan's Pan-Islamic aspirations.[324] Some Arab countries perceived the 'Islamistan' project as Pakistan's bid to dominate other Muslim states.[325]
Pakistan's founder,Muhammad Ali Jinnah, consistently advocated for thePalestinian cause, shaping Pakistan's foreign policy to support Palestinian rights within the broader framework of Muslim solidarity.[326] During the1967 Arab-Israel war, Pakistan supported the Arab states and played a key role in securing Iran's backing for the Arab cause both within the U.N. and beyond.[327]
Pakistan's relations with Iran have been strained by sectarian tensions,[328] with both Iran and Saudi Arabia using Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy sectarian war.[329] Since the early days of theIran–Iraq war, PresidentZia-ul-Haq played an important mediatory role, with Pakistan actively engaging in efforts to end the conflict.[330][331] Pakistan provided support to Saudi Arabia during theGulf War.[332] Pakistan chose to remain neutral duringOperation Decisive Storm, refraining from sending military support to Saudi Arabia in its offensive againstYemen. Instead, Pakistan aimed to play a proactive diplomatic role in resolving the crisis,[333] which led to tensions between the two countries.[332] In 2016, Pakistan mediated between Saudi Arabia and Iran following the execution of Shia clericNimr al-Nimr, with visits to both countries by then Prime MinisterNawaz Sharif and the Chief of Army Staff,Raheel Sharif.[334]
Pakistan provided refuge to millions of displaced Afghans after theSoviet invasion and supported theAfghan mujahideen in their efforts to expel Soviet forces from Afghanistan.[335] After the Soviets withdrew,infighting erupted among Mujahideen factions over control of Afghanistan. Pakistan facilitatedpeace talks to help end the conflict.[336] After four years of unresolved conflict between rival Mujahideen groups, Pakistan helped establish the Taliban as a stabilizing force.[337] Pakistan's support for the Sunni Taliban in Afghanistan challenged Shia-led Iran, which opposed a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan.[329]
Pakistan vigorously advocated for self-determination among Muslims globally. Its efforts in supporting independence movements in countries like Indonesia, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, andEritrea fostered strong ties.[338] Due to its support forAzerbaijan in theNagorno-Karabakh conflict, Pakistan has not establisheddiplomatic relations withArmenia.[339][340]
Pakistan and Bangladesh have experienced strained relations, particularly under theAwami League governments led bySheikh Hasina, driven by her pro-India stance and historical grievances.[341]
Pakistan, a prominent member of theOrganisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), prioritizes maintaining cultural, political, social, and economic relations with Arab and other Muslim-majority nations in its foreign policy.[342]
In September 2025, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia signed aStrategic Mutual Defence Agreement under which any aggression against one country is considered an aggression against both, formalising a defensive commitment that also extends Pakistan's nuclear umbrella to Saudi Arabia.[343]
The areas shown in green are the Pakistani-controlled areas.[344]
Kashmir, a Himalayan region at the northern tip of theIndian subcontinent, was governed as the autonomousprincely state ofJammu and Kashmir during theBritish Raj before thePartition of India in August 1947. This sparked amajor territorial dispute between India and Pakistan, resulting inseveral conflicts over the region. India controls about 45.1% of Kashmir, includingJammu and Kashmir andLadakh, while Pakistan controls roughly 38.2%, comprisingAzad Jammu and Kashmir andGilgit−Baltistan. Additionally, about 20% of the region, known asAksai Chin and theShaksgam Valley, is under Chinese control.[345] India claims the entire Kashmir region based on theInstrument of Accession signed by the princely state's ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh,[346] while Pakistan argues for its Muslim-majority population,[347] and geographical proximity to Pakistan.[348] The United Nations was involved in resolving the conflict, leading to a ceasefire in 1949 and the establishment of theLine of Control (LoC) as ade facto border.[349] India, fearing Kashmir's secession, did not hold the promised plebiscite, as it believed Kashmiris would vote to join Pakistan.[350]
Pakistan claims that its position is for the right of theKashmiri people to determine their future through impartial elections as mandated by the United Nations, while India has stated that Kashmir is an "integral part" of India, referring to the1972 Simla Agreement and to the fact thatregional elections take place regularly.[351] Certain Kashmiri independence groups believe that Kashmir should be independent of both India and Pakistan.[352]
TheChairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (CJCSC) is the highest-ranking military officer, advising the civilian government. However, they lack direct command over the branches and serve as intermediaries, ensuring communication between the military and civilian leadership. Overseeing theJoint Staff Headquarters, they coordinate inter-service cooperation and joint military missions.[357]
The United States, Turkey, and China maintain close military relations withPakistan Armed Forces, regularly exporting military equipment andtechnology transfer.[358] Pakistan was the 5th-largest recipient and importer of arms between 2019 and 2023.[359]
Since 1947, Pakistan has been involved infourconventional wars with India.[360] Thefirst conflict took place in Kashmir and ended in a United Nations-mediated ceasefire, with Pakistan gaining control of one-third of the region.[361] Territorial disputes led toanother war in 1965. In 1971, India and Pakistan foughtanother war overEast Pakistan, with Indian forces aiding its independence, leading to the creation ofBangladesh.[362] Tensions in Kargil brought the two countries to thebrink of war.[363]
Despite the UN arms embargo onBosnia, the ISI under GeneralJaved Nasir airlifted anti-tank weapons and missiles to Bosnian mujahideen, shifting the tide in favor of Bosnian Muslims. ISI, under Nasir's leadership, supported Chinese Muslims inXinjiang, rebel groups in thePhilippines, and religious groups in Central Asia.[375][376]
Law enforcement in Pakistan consists of federal and provincial police agencies. Each of thefour provinces (Punjab,Sindh,Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, andBalochistan) has its own police force, while theIslamabad Capital Territory (ICT) has the Islamabad Police.[378] Provincial police forces are led by an Inspector-General of Police (IGP), who is appointed from the federally recruited and trainedPolice Service of Pakistan (PSP) through a consultative process between the federal and provincial governments. All positions above the Assistant Superintendent level are filled from the PSP, ensuring national standards across provincial forces.[379]
Specialized Rapid Response Units: Specialized counter-terrorism units, such as thePunjab Elite Police Force, have been trained by army commandos and exist in every province to respond to hostage situations and neutralize armed groups.[381]
TheCivil Armed Forces (CAF) assist local law enforcement agencies and participate in border security and internal security operations, particularly in conflict-affected regions.[382]
In 2025, Pakistan ranked 158 out of 180 countries in thePress Freedom Index byReporters Without Borders, highlighting restrictions onfreedom of the press.[384] According to the journalistRaza Rumi, in 2023, TV channels in Pakistan faced suspensions and legal threats for airing content critical of the government or military, while online platforms also experienced temporary takedowns.[385] According to a 2025 report, some newspapers have faced financial pressure—such as withdrawal of government advertisements—for publishing content critical of government policies. Both military and civilian governments have historically used such tactics.[386]
In Pakistan, all sexual activity outside of marriage is illegal.[387] The punishment for sex outside marriage (zina) ranges from up to five years' imprisonment for minors to 100 lashes for unmarried adults andstoning to death for married adults, depending on marital status, age, sanity, and whether strict evidentiary requirements for ahadd punishment—such as four adult male Muslim witnesses or a confession—are met; however, no one has been stoned to death under the law to date.[388] Malehomosexuality is illegal in Pakistan and is punishable by up to ten years in prison,corporal punishment such aswhipping, and, underIslamic law since 1990, potentially even stoning.[389]
The semi-industrialised economy is heavily dependent on agriculture, and industrial growth in Pakistan benefits significantly from agricultural expansion.[402] The diversified economies ofKarachi andPunjab's urban centers coexist with less-developed areas in other parts of the country, particularly in Balochistan.[403] Pakistan ranks as the 67th-largest export economy and the 106th-most complex economy globally, with a negative trade balance of US$23.96 billion in fiscal year 2015–16.[404][405]
Rising skyline ofKarachi, with several under construction skyscrapers
As of 2022[update], Pakistan's estimatednominal GDP is US$376.493 billion.[406] The GDP byPPP is US$1.512 trillion. The estimated nominal per capita GDP is US$1,658, theGDP (PPP)/capita is US$6,662 (international dollars),[407] According to theWorld Bank, Pakistan has important strategic endowments and development potential. The increasing proportion of Pakistan's youth provides the country with both a potential demographic dividend and a challenge to provide adequate services and employment.[408] 21.04% of the population live below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day. The unemployment rate among the aged 15 and over population is 5.5%.[409] Pakistan has an estimated 40 million middle class citizens, projected to increase to 100 million by 2050.[410] A 2015 report published by the World Bank ranked Pakistan's economy at 24th-largest[411] in the world by purchasing power and 41st-largest[412] in absolute terms. It is South Asia's second-largest economy, representing about 15.0% of regional GDP.[413]
Pakistan's economic growth varied over time, with slow progress during democratic transitions but robust expansion undermartial law, lacking sustainable foundations.[118]Rapid reforms in the early to mid-2000s, including increased development spending, reduced poverty by 10% and boosted GDP by 3%.[414][415] The economy cooled post-2007,[414] with inflation peaking at 25.0% in 2008,[416] necessitatingIMF intervention to prevent bankruptcy.[417] TheAsian Development Bank later noted easing economic strain in Pakistan.[418] Inflation for fiscal year2010–11 stood at 14.1%.[419] Since 2013, Pakistan's economy has seen growth under an IMF program.Goldman Sachs predicted Pakistan's economy could grow 15 times by 2050,[420] andRuchir Sharma in his 2016 book anticipated a transformation to a middle-income country by 2020.[421]
Pakistan's vast natural commodity production and 10th-largestlabour market, along with a US$19.9 billion contribution from its 7-million-strongdiaspora in 2015–16,[422][423][424] position it significantly. However, Pakistan's global export share is declining, accounting for just 0.13% in 2007 according to theWorld Trade Organization.[425]
The Pakistani economy has shifted fromagriculture to services, with agriculture contributing only 20.9% of the GDP as of 2015.[427] Despite this, Pakistan's wheat production in 2005 surpassed Africa's and nearly matched South America's, highlighting its agricultural significance.[428] The sector employs 43.5% of the labor force and is a major source of foreign exchange.[427][429]
Manufactured exports, heavily reliant on agricultural raw materials like cotton and hides, face inflationary pressures due to supply shortages and market disruptions. Pakistan ranks fifth in cotton production, self-sufficient in sugarcane, and the fourth-largest milk producer globally. Though land and water resources haven't increased proportionately, productivity gains, especially from theGreen Revolution in the late 1960s and 1970s, significantly boosted wheat and rice yields. Private tube wells and High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) further augmented crop yields.[430] Meat industry accounts for 1.4 percent of overall GDP.[431]
Industry, constituting 19.74% of GDP and 24% of total employment, is the second-largest sector. Large-scale manufacturing (LSM) dominates, representing 12.2% of GDP, with cement production thriving due to demand from Afghanistan and the domestic real estate sector.[433] In 2013, Pakistan exported 7,708,557 metric tons of cement, with an installed capacity of 44,768,250 metric tons.[434] Thetextile industry, a key player in Pakistan's manufacturing, contributes 9.5% to GDP and employs around 15 million people. As of 2022, Pakistan ranks seventh globally in cotton production,[435] with substantial spinning capacity, making it a major exporter of textile products in Asia.[436] China has been a significant buyer of Pakistani textiles, importing US$1.527 billion worth of textiles in 2012.[437]
Services
As of 2014–15, the services sector contributes 58.8% to GDP,[427] serving as the main driver of economic growth in Pakistan,[438] with a consumption-oriented society. The sector's growth rate surpasses that of agriculture and industry, accounting for 54% of GDP and over one-third of total employment. It has strong linkages with other sectors, providing essential inputs to agriculture and manufacturing.[439] Pakistan's IT sector is one of the fastest-growing, ranked 110th for ICT development by theWorld Economic Forum.[440] With around 82 million internet users as of May 2020, Pakistanranks among top ten globally,[441] and its ICT industry is projected to exceed $10 billion by 2020.[442] With 12,000 employees, Pakistan is among the top five freelancing nations,[443] and its export performance in telecom, computer, and information services has notably improved.[444]
Tarbela Dam, the largest earth filled dam in the world, was constructed in 1968.
As of May 2021, Pakistan operates six licensed commercialnuclear power plants.[454] ThePakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) oversees these plants, while thePakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority ensures their safe operation.[455] These plants contribute approximately 5.8% to Pakistan's electricity supply, while fossil fuels (crude oil and natural gas) provide 64.2%,hydroelectric power provides 29.9%, andcoal contributes 0.1%.[456][457] TheKANUPP-I, Pakistan's first commercial nuclear power plant, was supplied by Canada in 1971. Sino-Pakistani nuclear cooperation began in the 1980s, leading to the establishment of CHASNUPP-I. In 2005, both countries proposed a joint energy security plan, aiming for a generation capacity exceeding 160,000MWe by 2030. Pakistan's Nuclear Energy Vision 2050 targets a capacity of 40,000 MWe,[458] with 8,900 MWe expected by 2030.[459]
In June 2008, the nuclear complex atChashma in Punjab Province expanded with the installation ofChashma-III andChashma–IV reactors, each with 325–340 MWe, costing₨129 billion, with ₨80 billion from international sources, mainly China. Another agreement for China's assistance was signed in October 2008, seen as a response to theUS–India agreement. The project's cost was then US$1.7 billion, with a foreign loan of US$1.07 billion. In 2013, Pakistan established a secondnuclear complex in Karachi with plans for additional reactors, similar to Chashma.[460]Electrical energy in Pakistan is generated byvarious corporations and distributed evenly among thefour provinces by theNational Electric Power Regulatory Authority (NEPRA). However, Karachi-basedK-Electric andWater and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) generate much of the electricity used in Pakistan and collect revenue nationwide.[461] In 2023, Pakistan's installedelectricity generation capacity was ~45,885 MWt.[462] Pakistan produced 1,135 megawatts ofrenewable energy for the month of October 2016. Pakistan expects to produce 10,000 megawatts of renewable energy by 2025.[463]
Pakistan boasts 2567 km of motorways and approximately 263,942 km of highways, which handle 92% of passengers and 96% of freight traffic. Despite constituting only 4.6% of the total road length, these north–south links manage 85% of the nation's traffic. They connect southern seaports such asKarachi port andPort Qasim in Sindh, along withGwadar Port andPort of Pasni in Balochistan, to populous provinces like Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa domestically, and neighboring countries like Afghanistan,Central Asia, and China through theChina Pakistan Economic Corridor.[464][465][466][467] According to theWEF's Global Competitiveness Report, Pakistan's port infrastructure quality ratings rose from 3.7 to 4.1 between 2007 and 2016.[468] The railway's share of inland traffic is reduced to below 8% for passengers and 4% for freight.[427] This shift led to a decrease in total rail track from 8,775 kilometres (5,453 miles) in 1990–91 to 7,791 kilometres (4,841 miles) in 2011.[465][464]
Karakoram Highway, connecting Pakistan to China, is one of the highest paved roads in the world.
The transport landscape of Pakistan features variousmodern transit systems. TheOrange Line Metro Train in Lahore, inaugurated in 2020,[469] spans 27.1 km (16.8 mi),[470] and includes both elevated and underground sections, accommodating over 250,000 passengers daily.[471] Lahore also boasts theLahore Metrobus, the first of its kind in Pakistan, operational since February 2013.[472] TheRawalpindi-Islamabad Metrobus, stretching 48.1 km, commenced its first phase in June 2015, with subsequent extensions, and employs e-ticketing and an Intelligent Transportation System.[473][474]Multan Metrobus, inaugurated in January 2017, servesMultan with its rapid transit services.[475][476]Peshawar's Bus Rapid Transit, inaugurated in August 2020, marks the fourth BRT system in Pakistan. Karachi'sGreen Line Metrobus, operational since December 2021, is part of a larger metrobus project financed by the Government of Pakistan and initiated in February 2016.[477][478][479] Meanwhile,Faisalabad awaits its proposed rapid transit project, theFaisalabad Metrobus.[480]Karachi Circular Railway, partially revived in November 2020, offers public transit services in the Karachi metropolitan area.[481][482] Additionally, plans are underway to resurrect Karachi'stramway service, which ceased operations in 1975, in collaboration with Austrian experts.[483][484]
The 1960s marked the rise of Pakistan's space program, led bySUPARCO, yielding advancements inrocketry,electronics, andaeronomy. Notably, Pakistan launched itsfirst rocket into space, pioneering South Asia's space exploration.[501] In 1990, it successfully launched itsfirst satellite, becoming the first Muslim nation and second in South Asia to achieve this milestone.[502]
Pakistan witnessed a fourfold increase in its scientific productivity in the past decade surging from approximately 2,000 articles per year in 2006 to more than 9,000 articles in 2015. Making Pakistan's cited article's higher than theBRIC countries put together.
Pakistan had a population of 241,499,431 according to the final results of the2023 census.[508] This figure includes the country'sfour provinces e.g. Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Balochistan and theIslamabad Capital Territory. Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan's census data is yet to be approved by CCI Council of Pakistan. Pakistan is the world'sfifth–most populous country.[509]
Between 1951 and 2023, Pakistan's population expanded over sevenfold, going from 33.7 million to 241.5 million. The country has a relatively high, although declining, growth rate supported by high birth rates and low death rates. Between 1998 and 2017, the average annual population growth rate stood at +2.40%.[510]
Dramatic social changes have led to urbanization and the emergence of twomegacities:Karachi andLahore. The country's urban population more than tripled between 1981 and 2017 (from 23.8 million to 75.7 million), as Pakistan'surbanisation rate rose from 28.2% to 36.4%. Even with this, the nation's urbanisation rate remains one ofthe lowest in the world, and in 2017, over 130 million Pakistanis (making up nearly 65% of the population) lived in rural areas.
Due to a highfertility rate, which was estimated at 3.5 in 2022, Pakistan has one of the world'syoungest populations. The 2017 census recorded that 40.3% of the country's population was under the age of 15, while only 3.7% of Pakistanis were aged 65 or more.[511] Themedian age of the country was 19,[511] while itssex ratio was recorded to be 105 males per 100 females.[512]
Thedemographic history of Pakistan from the ancientIndus Valley civilization to the modern era includes the arrival and settlement of many cultures and ethnic groups in the modern region of Pakistan fromEurasia and the nearbyMiddle East. Because of this, Pakistan has a multicultural, multilinguistic, and multiethnic society. Pakistan is also thought to have the world's fourth-largestrefugee population, estimated at 1.4 million in mid-2021 by theUNHCR.[513]
Sinceindependence due to thepartition of India,urbanisation has surged for various reasons. In the south,Karachi stands as the most populous commercial hub along theIndus River.[514] In the east, west, and north, a dense population arc spans cities likeLahore,Faisalabad,Rawalpindi,Islamabad,Sargodha,Gujranwala,Sialkot,Gujrat,Jhelum,Sheikhupura,Nowshera,Mardan, andPeshawar. By 1990–2008, city dwellers constituted 36% of Pakistan's population, making it South Asia's most urbanized nation, with over 50% living in towns of 5,000+ inhabitants.[515]Immigration, both domestic and international, significantly fuels urban growth. Migration from India, especially to Karachi, the largest metropolis, and from nearby countries, accelerates urbanization, posing new political and socio-economic challenges. Economic shifts like the green revolution and political developments also play crucial roles.[516]
Afghan children nearIslamabad fetching water from water pump. (Pakistan once held the second largest refugee population globally afterTurkey.[527])
Even post-1947 partition, the Muslims from India kept migrating to Pakistan, especially Karachi and Sindh province.[528] Wars in neighboring Afghanistan in the 1980s and 1990s pushed millions ofAfghan refugees into Pakistan, mainly in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa andtribal areas, with some in Karachi and Quetta. Pakistan hosts one of the world's largest refugee populations.[529] Additionally, around 2 millionBangladeshis and half a million undocumented individuals, purportedly fromMyanmar, reside in Pakistan.[530] In October 2023, Pakistan ordered the deportation of thousands undocumented refugees, citing security concerns.[531]
Migration of Bengalis andRohingya to Pakistan started in the 1980s and continued till 1998. Karachi hosts a significant number of Bengali settlements, and large Rohingya migration made it one of their largest populations outside Myanmar.[532] Karachi'sBurmese community resides in various slums across the city.[533]
According toBBC, thousands ofUyghur Muslims live in Gilgit-Baltistan, some left Xinjiang, China and the thriving trading town of Kashgar in 1949, while others are later arrivals, claiming to escape political oppression.[534] Since 1989, thousands ofKashmiri Muslim refugees fled to Pakistan, alleging rape and forced displacement by Indian soldiers.[535]
According to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Pakistan has the sixth-largest diaspora globally.[526] Approximately 7 million Pakistanis reside abroad, mainly in the Middle East, Europe, and North America.[536] Pakistan ranks 10th globally for remittances sent home.[423][537] Saudi Arabia is the largest source of remittances, contributing $5.9 billion as of 2016[update].[538] The termOverseas Pakistani is officially recognized by the Government of Pakistan, with theMinistry of Overseas Pakistanis and Human Resource Development addressing their needs, welfare, and issues. Overseas Pakistanis constitute the second-largest source of foreign exchange remittances to Pakistan, with remittances increasing by over 100% from US$8.9 billion in 2009–10 to US$19.9 billion in 2015–16.[422][537]
Islam dominates in Pakistan, with about 96.35% of the population being Muslim.[544] Pakistan ranks second globally in Muslim population,[545] and is home to 10.5% of the world's Muslims.[546] Karachi is the largest Muslim city in the world.[547]
TheAhmadis are a minority, officially considered non-Muslims.[553][554] Ahmadis face persecution, banned from calling themselves Muslims since 1974.[555]
Hindu proportion of each Pakistani District in 2017 according to the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics
Hinduism is the second-largest religion, followed by 2.17% of the population according to the census in 2023.[539] Pakistan had the fifth-largest Hindu population globally in 2010.[556] In 2023, Hindus numbered 5,217,216.[539][k] They reside across Pakistan but are concentrated inSindh, where they make up 8.81% of the population.[539]Umerkot district of the province is the only Hindu majority area.Tharparkar district hosts the largest Hindu population. Four districts – Umerkot, Tharparkar,Mirpurkhas, andSanghar – have over half of Pakistan's Hindus.[557]
At Pakistan's inception, the 'hostage theory' suggested fair treatment of Hindus to safeguard Muslims in India.[558][559] However, some Pakistani Hindus felt marginalized, leading to emigration to India.[560] They faced violence post theBabri Masjid demolition.[561]
Christian proportion of each Pakistani District in 2017 according to the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics
Christians are the next largest religious minority after Hindus, constituting 1.37% of the population.[539] They are concentrated inLahore District (5%) andIslamabad Capital Territory (over 4%). Karachi hosts a historicRoman Catholic community established byGoan andTamil migrants during British colonial rule.[562]
Following Christianity, theBahá'í Faith had 30,000 followers in 2008, followed by Sikhism, Buddhism, andZoroastrianism, each with around 20,000 adherents in 2008,[563] alongside a smallJain community.
Initiatives since 2007 madeEnglish medium education mandatory nationwide. Following a 2012 attack on activistMalala Yousafzai by theTaliban, she became the youngest Nobel laureate for her education advocacy.[571] Reforms in 2013 mandated Chinese language courses in Sindh, reflecting China's growing influence. As of 2018, Pakistan's literacy rate stands at 62.3%, with significant regional and gender disparities.[572] Government initiatives, including computer literacy since 1995, aim to eradicate illiteracy, targeting 100% enrollment among primary school-age children and an ~86% literacy rate by 2015.[573] Pakistan allocates 2.3% of its GDP to education,[574] among the lowest in South Asia.[575]
Artwork bySadequain on the ceiling ofFrere Hall. Having painted around 15,000 paintings, Sadequain is considered one of the finest painters and calligraphers Pakistan has ever produced.
The advent of Islam in present-day Pakistan marked the cessation of Buddhist architecture, ushering inIslamic architecture. The notableIndo-Islamic structure, thetomb of Shah Rukn-i-Alam in Multan, remains significant. During the Mughal era, Persian-Islamic design merged with Hindustani art, seen in Lahore's architectural gems like theBadshahi Mosque and theLahore Fort with the iconicAlamgiri Gate. Lahore also boasts the vibrantWazir Khan Mosque,[585] and the lushShalimar Gardens. In the British colonial period, Indo-European buildings emerged, blending European and Indian-Islamic styles. Post-colonial identity shines through modern landmarks like theFaisal Mosque,Minar-e-Pakistan, andMazar-e-Quaid.British architectural influence persists in structures across Lahore, Peshawar, and Karachi.[586]
A depiction of traditional clothing of women fromSindh
TheShalwar kameez is Pakistan'snational dress, worn in all provinces: Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Azad Kashmir. Each province has its own style. Pakistanis wear a variety of fabrics like silk,chiffon, and cotton. In addition to the national dress, men often wear domestically tailored suits andneckties, especially in offices, schools, and social gatherings.[587]
Pakistan'sfashion industry has thrived, blending traditional and modern styles to create a unique cultural identity. Regional and traditional dress remain significant symbols of native tradition, evolving into both modern and purer forms. Organizations like the Pakistan Fashion Design Council inLahore and the Fashion Pakistan Council inKarachi host events likePFDC Fashion Week andFashion Pakistan Week. Pakistan's inaugural fashion week took place in November 2009.[588]
TheLollywood, Punjabi, andPashto film industry is centered in Karachi, Lahore, and Peshawar. Although Bollywood films were banned from public cinemas from 1965 to 2008, they remained influential in Pakistani popular culture.[602] However, in 2019, the screening of Bollywood movies faced an indefinite ban.[603] Despite challenges faced by the Pakistani film industry, Urdutelevised dramas and theatrical performances remain popular, frequently broadcast by many entertainment media outlets.[604] Urdu dramas dominate the television entertainment industry, renowned for their quality since the 1990s.[605] Pakistani music encompasses diverse forms, from provincial folk music and traditional styles likeQawwali andGhazal Gayaki to modern fusions of traditional and western music.[606] Pakistan boasts numerous renowned folk singers, and the arrival of Afghan refugees in western provinces has sparked interest in Pashto music, despite occasional intolerance.[607]
Roti, served with various side dishes, is considered a staple food in Pakistan
Pakistani cuisine, rooted in the royal kitchens of 16th-century Mughal emperors, blends influences fromBritish,Indian,Central Asian, andMiddle Eastern culinary traditions.[608] Unlike Middle Eastern fare, Pakistani dishes are heavily spiced with garlic, ginger, turmeric,chili, andgaram masala.Roti, a wheat-based flatbread, accompanies most meals, alongsidecurry, meat, vegetables, and lentils. Rice is also common, served plain, spiced, or in sweet dishes.[174][609]Lassi, a traditional drink from thePunjab region, andblack tea with milk and sugar are popular beverages enjoyed nationwide.[578][610]Sohan halwa, a beloved sweet dish from southern Punjab, is savored across Pakistan.[611]
In field hockey, Pakistan boasts fourHockey World Cup wins, eightAsian Games gold medals, and threeOlympic gold medals. Squash playerJahangir Khan holds the record for the longest winning streak in professional sport history, winning 555 consecutive matches.[616][617] Pakistan has hosted various international events, including Cricket and Hockey World Cups and Asian Games.[618]
^ The Constitution designates Islam as the state religion.
^"Includes data for Pakistani territories of Kashmir;Azad Kashmir (13,297 km2 or 5,134 sq mi) andGilgit–Baltistan (72,520 km2 or 28,000 sq mi).[5] Excluding these territories would produce an area figure of 796,095 km2 (307,374 sq mi)."
^ab"This figure does not include data for Pakistan-administered areas of Kashmir; Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan, which, according to 2017 Pakistani census, had a population of 4,045,367 and 1,492,924 respectively."
^The precise time span of the period is uncertain.Philological andlinguistic evidence indicates that theRigveda, the oldest of the Vedas, was composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BCE, also referred to as the early Vedic period. Oberlies gives an estimate of 1200–1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book ten. Estimates for aterminus post quem of the earliest hymns are more uncertain. Other 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700–1100.
^The World Bank data lists the total area of Pakistan as 770,880 km², excluding Gilgit-Baltistan, Azad Kashmir, and water areas.
^In the framework of their regional security complex theory (RSCT), Barry Buzan and Ole Waever differentiate between superpowers and great powers which act and influence the global level (or system level) and regional powers whose influence may be large in their regions but have less effect at the global level. This category of regional powers includes Brazil, Egypt, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, South Africa and Turkey.
^This number includes population of the Hindu (Jati) and the scheduled castes.
^Wright (2009) "The Indus civilisation is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia and Pharaonic Egypt, was a cradle of early civilisation in the Old World (Childe, 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer lived, but coexisted with Indus civilisation during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 B.C. Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today's northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India."
^Copland (2001) "However, the real turning point for the new Muslim League came with the general election of December 1945 and January 1946. Despite facing a rejuvenated Congress, the League won four-fifths of all the Muslim-reserved seats ... The result left no one, not least the British, in doubt about where the locus of power within the Muslim community now lay ... In most respects, therefore, the League's success in the elections of 1945–46 can be interpreted as a clear Muslim mandate for Pakistan. (p 72)"
^Metcalf & Metcalf (2006) "The loss of life was immense, with estimates ranging from several hundred thousand up to a million. But, even for those who survived, fear generated a widespread perception that one could be safe only among members of one's own community; and this in turn helped consolidate loyalties towards the state, whether India or Pakistan, in which one might find a secure haven. This was especially important for Pakistan, where the succour it offered to Muslims gave that state for the first time a visible territorial reality. Fear too drove forward a mass migration unparalleled in the history of South Asia. ... Overall, partition uprooted some 12.5 million of undivided India's people."
^Coningham & Young (2015) "Mehrgarh remains one of the key sites in South Asia because it has provided the earliest known undisputed evidence for farming and pastoral communities in the region, and its plant and animal material provide clear evidence for the ongoing manipulation, and domestication, of certain species. Perhaps most importantly in a South Asian context, the role played by zebu makes this a distinctive, localised development, with a character completely different from other parts of the world. Finally, the longevity of the site, and its articulation with the neighbouring site of Nausharo (c. 2800—2000 BCE), provides a very clear continuity from South Asia's first farming villages to the emergence of its first cities (Jarrige, 1984)."
^Fisher (2018) "The earliest discovered instance in India of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu [Bos indicus] and unhumped [Bos taurus]). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well."
^Dyson (2018) "The subcontinent's people were hunter-gatherers for many millennia. There were very few of them. Indeed, 10,000 years ago there may only have been a couple of hundred thousand people, living in small, often isolated groups, the descendants of various 'modern' human incomers. Then, perhaps linked to events in Mesopotamia, about 8,500 years ago agriculture emerged in Baluchistan."
^Allchin & Allchin (1982) "During the second half of the fourth and early part of the third millennium B.C., a new development begins to become apparent in the greater Indus system, which we can now see to be a formative stage underlying the Mature Indus of the middle and late third millennium. This development seems to have involved the whole Indus system, and to a lesser extent the Indo-Iranian borderlands to its west, but largely left untouched the subcontinent east of the Indus system."
^Needham (1994) "When the men of Alexander the Great came to Taxila in India in the fourth century BCE they found a university there the like of which had not been seen in Greece, a university which taught the three Vedas and the eighteen accomplishments and was still existing when the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien went there about CE 400."
^Kulke & Rothermund (2016) "In the early centuries the centre of Buddhist scholarship was the University of Taxila."
^Stubbs & Thomson (2016) "Perhaps best known as home to Asia's earliest cities, the Harappan sites of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, Pakistan's rich history includes contributions from prominent Buddhist, Hindu, Hellenistic, Jain and Zoroastrian civilizations, as well as those connected to its Islamic heritage."
^abWolpert (1984, p. 17) "Barrister Jinnah of Bombay remained as remote from such feelings, as out of tune with such reasoning, as he had been in London in 1893, when Sir Sayyid first spoke of Hindus and Muslims as "different nationalities.""
^abSengupta (2023) "Syed Ahmad Khan, the founder of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (which later became Aligarh Muslim University), had declared in a speech in Meerut what would become famous as the "two nation theory.""......"Is it possible that under these circumstances two nations — the Mahomedans and the Hindus — could sit on the same throne and remain equal in power? Most certainly not."
^Hardy (1972) "Much has been made' of the failure of Congress and the Muslim parties to agree over the Nehru Report and of the rejection of Jinnah's 'Fourteen Points' as a significant milestone along the way to the partition of India. A great opportunity was lost, it is thought, for the abandonment of separate electorates by voluntary Muslim agreement."
^Wuthnow (2013) "To satisfy Muslims' determination to have guaranteed rights in the future political system of India and to maintain territorial unity of the Indian state, by 1929 Jinnah produced the formula known as the Fourteen Points of Mr. Jinnah.The Fourteen Points included separate electorates for Muslims in the provinces of India, parity of electoral representation in the Punjab and Bengal, and electoral considerations for Muslims in those provinces in which they were a minority, although they would retain clear majority in the Northwest Frontier Province, Baluchistan, and Sind."
^abSingh & Shani (2021) "Jinnah's famous 'fourteen points' as a condition for support for India's unity, with strong provinces within a weak Indian federation, marked the parting of ways between the Congress and the Muslim national leadership (Jalal 1994, 10–11). At the 1930 session of the All-Indian Muslim Conference, Sir Mohammed Iqbal proposed a Muslim homeland that would serve 'as a symbolic cultural expression of the common striving of Muslim fulfilment – a political manifestation of a common mission' (Gilmartin 1988, 167). The idea of self-determination for India's Muslims was constructed mainly in fear of the majoritarian 'secular' (Hindu) nationalism of the Congress."
Basu & Miroshnik (2023) "Mohammed Iqbal was credited with coming up with the two-nation theory in his speech at Allahabad in 1930 to the Muslim League in a very formal way by saying: "I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind, and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State. Self-government within the British Empire or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Moslem State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Moslems, at least of NorthWest India" (Zaidi, 1993; Ahmed, 1970)."
Hussain (2018) "After repeated demands for stronger constitutional safeguards to protect the rights of minorities, Iqbal eventually opted for a separate Islamic Republic instead. As opposed to putting the free and rational individual at the centre of his democratic theory, Iqbal's republic primarily required Muslims endowed with a specific character and smelted together by a peculiar vision of individuality. Like a number of his contemporaries, Iqbal warmed up to the two nation-theory. Unlike the mainstream view, however, which read an eternal struggle of Hindus and Muslims back into Indian history, Iqbal's concept of the Muslim nation was something to be striven towards, not something to be replanted from the past. Iqbal believed that the best way to actualize this national sentiment in the present, was through individual political action."
^Tucker (2020) "Gandhi's decision played directly into the hands of Jinnah. Jinnah's Muslim League strongly supported the Allied war effort and thereby greatly advanced the possibility of the creation of a separate Muslim state in the Indian subcontinent after the war."
^Mohiuddin (2007, p. 70) "In the elections of 1946, the Muslim League won 90 percent of the legislative seats reserved for Muslims. It was the power of the big zamindars in Punjab and Sindh behind the Muslim League candidates that led to this massive landslide victory (Alavi 2002, 14). Even Congress, which had always denied the League's claim to be the only true representative of Indian Muslims had to concede the truth of that claim. The 1946 election was, in effect, a plebiscite among Muslims on Pakistan."
^Mohiuddin (2007, p. 71) "Despite the League's victory in the elections, the British did not want the partition of British India. As a last attempt to avoid it, Britain put forward the Cabinet Mission Plan, according to which India would become a federation of three large, self-governing provinces and the central government would be limited to power over foreign policy and defense, implying a weak center."
Isaacs (1975) "2,000,000 killed in the Hindu-Muslim holocaust during the partition of British-India and the creation of India and Pakistan"
Basrur (2008) "An estimated 12–15 million people were displaced, and some 2 million died. The legacy of Partition (never without a capital P) remains strong today ..."
D'Costa (2011) "Estimates of the dead vary from 200,000 (the contemporary British figure) to 2 million (a subsequent Indian speculation). Today, however, it is widely accepted that nearly a million people died during Partition (Butalia, 1997)."
Brass (2003) "In the event, largely but not exclusively as a consequence of their efforts, the entire Muslim population of the eastern Punjab districts migrated to West Punjab and the entire Sikh and Hindu populations moved to East Punjab in the midst of widespread intimidation, terror, violence, abduction, rape, and murder."
Daiya (2011) "The official estimate of the number of abducted women during Partition was placed at 33,000 non-Muslim (Hindu or Sikh predominantly) women in Pakistan, and 50,000 Muslim women in India."
Abraham (2002) "In addition thousands of women on both sides of the newly formed borders (estimated range from 29,000 to 50,000 Muslim women and 15,000 to 35,000 Hindu and Sikh women) were abducted, raped, forced to convert, forced into marriage, forced back into what the two States defined as 'their proper homes', torn apart from their families once during partition by those who abducted them, and again, after partition, by the State which tried to 'recover' and 'rehabilitate' them."
Singh, Iyer & Gairola (2016) "The horrific statistics that surround women refugees-between 75,000–100,000 Hindu, Muslim and Sikh women who were abducted by men of the other communities, subjected to multiple rapes, mutilations, and, for some, forced marriages and conversions-is matched by the treatment of the abducted women in the hands of the nation-state. In the Constituent Assembly in 1949 it was recorded that of the 50,000 Muslim women abducted in India, 8,000 of then were recovered, and of the 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women abducted, 12,000 were recovered."
^Hasan & Raza (2009, p. 12) "When the British Indian Empire was partitioned in 1947, 4.7 million Sikhs and Hindus left what is today Pakistan for India, and 6.5 million Muslims migrated from India to Pakistan."
^Kumarasingham (2013) "Few today, including those who work on the subcontinent, recollect that India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka did not become republics the day British rule ended. Even distinguished scholars of Empire like Perry Anderson and A. G. Hopkins have made the common assumption that India naturally became a republic upon independence on 15 August 1947. Instead, all three of these South Asian states began their independent life as Realms within the British Commonwealth and mirrored the style and institutions of the Dominions of Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand. Though their sovereignty was in no way impaired by this seemingly ambiguous position they all held the British sovereign as their head of state who was represented in each capital by a governor- general appointed on the advice of the local prime minister. India, Pakistan and Ceylon were Realms from 1947 to 1950, 1947 to 1956 and 1948 to 1972 respectively."
^McGrath (1996) "Undivided India, their magnificent imperial trophy, was besmirched by the creation of Pakistan, and the division of India was never emotionally accepted by many British leaders, Mountbatten among them."
^Ahmed (1997) "Mountbatten's partiality was apparent in his own statements. He tilted openly and heavily towards Congress. While doing so he clearly expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League and its Pakistan idea."
^Wolpert (2009) "Mountbatten tried to convince Jinnah of the value of accepting him, Mountbatten, as Pakistan's first governor-general, but Jinnah refused to be moved from his determination to take that job himself."
^Lapierre & Collins (2015) "Not only was I not aware, but nobody was aware. Nobody had a clue. I'm glad I didn't because I just don't know what I would have done if I'd known that.You see, Jinnah was so much of a one-man band. If somebody had told me he's going to be dead in x months would I then-I am asking myself this question now-would I have said, Let's hold India together and not divide it? Would I have put back the clock, and held the position? Most probably. I have a feeling Jinnah may not have known himself he had tuberculosis. He was a very severe, cold and repressed person. Nothing would have surprised me about him. He was an extraordinary creature."
^Hussain (2008) "Mawlānā Shabbīr Ahmad Usmānī, a respected Deobandī ʿālim (scholar) who was appointed to the prestigious position of Shaykh al-Islām of Pakistan in 1949, was the first to demand that Pakistan become an Islamic state. But Mawdūdī and his Jamāʿat-i Islāmī played the central part in the demand for an Islamic constitution. Mawdūdī demanded that the Constituent Assembly make an unequivocal declaration affirming the "supreme sovereignty of God" and the supremacy of the sharīʿah as the basic law of Pakistan."
^abHussain (2008) "The first important result of the combined efforts of the Jamāʿat-i Islāmī and the ʿulamāʿ was the passage of the Objectives Resolution in March 1949, whose formulation reflected compromise between traditionalists and modernists. The resolution embodied "the main principles on which the constitution of Pakistan is to be based". It declared that "sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust", that "the principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice, as enunciated by Islam shall be fully observed", and that "the Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in the individual and collective spheres in accord with the teaching and requirements of Islam as set out in the Holy Qurʿan and Sunna". The Objectives Resolution has been reproduced as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973."
^Dhulipala (2015, p. 496) "The idea of Pakistan may have had its share of ambiguities, but its dismissal as a vague emotive symbol hardly illuminates the reasons as to why it received such overwhelmingly popular support among Indian Muslims, especially those in the 'minority provinces' of British India such as U.P."
^Dhulipala (2015, p. 497) "As the book has demonstrated, local ML functionaries, (U.P.) ML leadership, Muslim modernists at Aligarh, the ulama and even Jinnah at times articulated their vision of Pakistan in terms of an Islamic state."
^Dhulipala (2015, p. 489) "But what is undeniable is the close association he developed with the ulama, for when he died a little over a year after Pakistan was born, Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, in his funeral oration, described Jinnah as the greatest Muslim after the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb."……"Similarly, Usmani asked Pakistanis to remember the Qaid's ceaseless message of Unity, Faith and Discipline and work to fulfil his dream to create a solid bloc of all Muslim states from Karachi to Ankara, from Pakistan to Morocco. He [Jinnah] wanted to see the Muslims of the world united under the banner of Islam as an effective check against the aggressive designs of their enemies."
^Haqqani (2010, p. 16) "The first formal step toward transforming Pakistan into an Islamic ideological state was taken in March 1949 when the country's first prime minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, presented the Objectives Resolution in the constituent assembly."
^Dhulipala (2015, p. 491) "Khaliq drew a sharp distinction between this Islamic state and a Muslim state. He claimed that as of now Pakistan was only a Muslim state in view of the majority of its population being Muslim, and indeed could never be an Islamic state by itself. It could certainly fulfill its promise and destiny by bringing together all the believers of Islam into one political unit and it is only then that an Islamic state would be achieved."
^Haqqani (2010, p. 18) "One of the earliest Western scholars of Pakistani politics, Keith Callard, observed that Pakistanis seemed to believe in the essential unity of purpose and outlook in the Muslim world: Pakistan was founded to advance the cause of Muslims. Other Muslims might have been expected to be sympathetic, even enthusiastic. But this assumed that other Muslim states would take the same view of the relation between religion and nationality."
^Haqqani (2010, p. 18) "Pakistan's pan-Islamic aspirations, however, were neither shared nor supported by the Muslim governments of the time. Nationalism in other parts of the Muslim world was based on ethnicity, language, or territory."
^Haqqani (2010, p. 19) "Although Muslim governments were initially unsympathetic to Pakistan's pan-Islamic aspirations, Islamists from the world over were drawn to Pakistan. Controversial figures such as the pro-Nazi former grand mufti of Palestine, Al-Haj Amin al-Husseini, and leaders of Islamist political movements like the Arab Muslim Brotherhood became frequent visitors to the country."
^Cochrane (2009) "The social scientist, Nasim Ahmad Jawed has conducted a survey of nationalism in pre-divided Pakistan and identifies the links between religion, politics and nationalism in both wings of Pakistan. His findings are fascinating and go some way to explain the differing attitudes of West and East Pakistan to the relationship between Islam and Pakistani nationalism and how this affected the views of people in both wings, especially the views of the peoples of both wings towards each other. In 1969, Jawed conducted a survey on the type of national identity that was used by educated professional people. He found that just over 60% in the East wing professed to have a secular national identity. However, in the West wing, the same figure professed an Islamic and not a secular identity. Furthermore, the same figure in the East wing described their identity in terms of their ethnicity and not in terms of Islam. He found that the opposite was the case in the West wing where Islam was stated to be more important than ethnicity."
^Diamantides & Gearey (2011, p. 196) "The Constitution of 1973 was created by a parliament that was elected in the 1970 elections. In this first ever general elections ..."
^Diamantides & Gearey (2011, p. 198) "The 1973 constitution also created certain institutions to channel the application and interpretation of Islam: the Council of Islamic Ideology and the Shariat Court."
^Diamantides & Gearey (2011, p. 198) "The Shariat judicial courts were not present in the original Constitution of 1973 and were later inserted in 1979 by General Zia-ul Haq ..."
^Wynbrandt (2009, pp. 216–217) "Zia, however, tried to bolster the influence of Islamic parties and the ulama on government and society."
^Syed et al. (2016, p. 379) "... the military dictator Zia ul Haq (1977–1988) forged a strong alliance between the military and Deobani institutions and movements (e.g. the TJ)."
^Syed et al. (2016, p. 346) "The grave impact of that legacy was compunded by the Iranian Revolution, and Zia-ul Haq's anti-Shia policies, which added the violence and regimentation of the organization."
^Pasha (2005, p. 225) "Pakistan's expression of solidarity was followed, after Independence, by a vigorous pursuit of bilateral relations with Muslim countries like Iran and Turkey."
^Pasha (2005, p. 226) "Following Khaliquzzaman, the Ali brothers had sought to project Pakistan, with its comparatively larger manpower and military strength, as the natural leader of the Islamic world."
^Dhulipala (2015, p. 18) "As a top ranking ML leader Khaliquzzaman declared, 'Pakistan would bring all Muslim countries together into Islamistan – a pan-Islamic entity'."
^Haqqani (2013, pp. 20–21) "Within a few years the president of the Muslim League, Chaudhry Khaliq-uz-Zaman, announced that Pakistan would bring all Muslim countries together into Islamistan – a pan-Islamic entity. None of these developments within the new country elicited approval among Americans for the idea of India's partition ... British Prime Minister Clement Attlee voiced the international consensus at the time when he told the House of Commons of his hope that 'this severance may not endure.' He hoped that the proposed dominions of India and Pakistan would in course of time, come together to form one great Member State of the British Commonwealth of Nations."
^Haqqani (2013, p. 22) "During this time most of the Arab world was going through a nationalist awakening. Pan-Islamic dreams involving the unification of Muslim countries, possibly under Pakistani leadership, had little attraction."
^Roberts (2003) "The following year, Choudhry Khaliquzzaman toured the Middle East, pleading for the formation of an alliance or confederation of Muslim states. The Arab states, often citing Pakistan's inability to solve its problems with Muslim neighbor Afghanistan, showed little enthusiasm ... Some saw the effort to form 'Islamistan' as a Pakistani attempt to dominate other Muslim states."
^Hunter (2010) "Since then, Pakistan's sectarian tensions have been a major irritant in Iranian-Pakistan relations."
^abPande (2011, p. 159) "Both Saudi Arabia and Iran used Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy war for the 'hearts and minds' of Pakistani Sunnis and Shias with the resultant rise in sectarian tensions in Pakistan. The rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan in the 1990s further strained Pakistan-Iran relations. Pakistan's support of the Sunni Pashtun organization created problems for Shia Iran for whom a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan was a nightmare."
^Pande (2011, p. 178) "The belief that the creation of Pakistan made Pakistan the true leader of Muslim causes around the world led Pakistan's diplomats to vigorously champion the cause of self-determination for fellow Muslims at the United Nations. Pakistan's founders, including Jinnah, supported anti-colonial movements: "Our heart and soul go out in sympathy with those who are struggling for their freedom ... If subjugation and exploitation are carried on, there will be no peace and there will be no end to wars." Pakistani efforts on behalf of Indonesia (1948), Algeria (1948–1949), Tunisia (1948–1949), Morocco (1948–1956) and Eritrea (1960–1991) were significant and initially led to close ties between these countries and Pakistan."
^Endrst (1965) "Former Indian Defense Minister Krishna Menon who for years influenced the decisions of late Prime Minister Nehru himself a Kashmiri-put it bluntly last March in an interview with an American newsman when he said India could never agree to a U.N. sponsored plebiscite because 'Kashmir would vote to join Pakistan, and no Indian government responsible for agreeing to the plebiscite could survive.'"
Paul (2012, p. 11) "The regional powers such as Israel or Pakistan are not simple bystanders of great power politics in their regions; they attempt to asymmetrically influence the major power system often in their own distinct ways."
Vandamme (2014, p. 14) "Countries like Saudi Arabia and Pakistan have enough influence to not be considered small, but not enough to be major powers. Within the limits of their regions, they play a significant political role. Thus instinctively, they would qualify as middle powers. While it is not the objective here to question the characteristics of Jordan's definition of middle powers, we argue that Pakistan is in fact a middle power despite its being nuclear-armed. When looking at the numbers, for instance, it appears that Saudi Arabia and Pakistan can be classified as middle powers."
^Miller (2015) "Not since the tenth century had such a maverick crew occupied Islam's holiest sanctuary, and for nearly two weeks Saudi Special Forces assisted by Pakistani and French commandos fought pitched battles to reclaim the compound."
^Wiebes (2003) "Pakistan definitely defied the United Nations ban on supply of arms to the Bosnian Muslims and sophisticated anti-tank guided missiles were airlifted by the Pakistani intelligence agency, ISI, to help Bosnians fight the Serbs."
^Abbas (2015) "Javed Nasir confesses that despite the U.N. ban on supplying arms to the besieged Bosnians, he successfully airlifted sophisticated antitank guided missiles which turned the tide in favour of Bosnian Muslims and forced the Serbs to lift the siege. Under his leadership the ISI also got involved in supporting Chinese Muslims in Xinjiang Province, rebel Muslim groups in the Philippines, and some religious groups in Central Asia."
^"Human Development Indices"(PDF). United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Reports. p. 15. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 19 December 2008. Retrieved6 October 2015.
^Kazmi, Zahir (7 January 2014)."Pakistan's energy security".Express Tribune. Retrieved23 February 2015.Special report on Energy security efforts in Pakistan
^Adnan, Imran (1 April 2019)."OLMT project to face further delay".The Express Tribune. Retrieved2 April 2019.As per the direction of the apex court, he said, the civil works of the project will be completed by end of July 2019. But the project will not enter into commercial operations by August or November 2019. -"Manufacturing of orange trains starts, says Kh Hassan". The News. 26 May 2016. Retrieved24 January 2017.Latest technology will be employed for fabricating these trains and the rolling-stock will be fully computerised, automatic and driverless.
^"Address by Prime Minister".Press Information Department (Government of Pakistan). Archived fromthe original(DOC) on 12 January 2012. Retrieved24 December 2011.
^Hameed A. Khan; M. M. Qurashi; Tajammul Hussain; Irfan Hayee, eds. (April 2006).Physics in Developing Countries – Past, Present & Future(PDF). COMSATS' Series of Publications on Science and Technology. Vol. 8. Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development in the South. p. 9.Archived(PDF) from the original on 24 May 2012. Retrieved1 January 2012.
^Lele, Ajey (2012).Asian Space Race: Rhetoric or Reality?. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 46.ISBN978-81-322-0733-7.Headquartered in SUPARCO headquarters, Karachi, it has been responsible directly and indirectly for the fabrication, processing and launch of the Muslim Ummah's first experimental satellite, Badr-1. It was a historical event not only for the people of Pakistan but also for the entire Muslim Ummah as it was the first satellite built by any Islamic country based on indigenous resources and manpower. -"The Launching of Badr-I".Aero Space Guide. Archived fromthe original on 2 February 2015. Retrieved24 December 2011.
^Haqqani, Husain (2005)."§Chapter 3".Pakistan : between mosque and military (1. print. ed.). Washington, DC: United Book Press.ISBN978-0-87003-214-1.The trauma was extremely severe in Pakistan when the news of secession of East Pakistan as Bangladesh arrived—a psychological setback, complete and humiliating defeat that shattered the prestige of Pakistan Armed Forces.
^Sayar, M.A. (April–June 1995)."Should We Exploit The Last Wilderness?".The Fountain Magazine. Archived fromthe original on 15 February 2016. Retrieved9 February 2016.Pakistan became the first Muslim country to send an official expedition to Antarctica. Pakistan in 1992, established its Jinnah Antarctic Research Station. -"Huge Oil Deposits Located Near Coast".Economic Review.22. 1991.To a question Dr. Farah said, Pakistan was the first country to carry out research and establish its station at the same time in Antarctica. -Farah, Abul; Rizvi, S.H. Niaz (1995).Pakistan's Scientific Expeditions to Antarctica. National Institute of Oceanography. p. 15.Pakistan's presence in Antarctica also appears imperative as none of the Muslim countries seem to be in a position to undertake research there. -Farah, Abul; Rizvi, S.H. Niaz (1995).Pakistan's Scientific Expeditions to Antarctica. National Institute of Oceanography. p. 17.We have already taken the lead amongst the Muslim countries by launching our first expedition in 1990–1991 with an investment of large funds and national talent towards Antarctic research. -"News Bulletin".National Institute of Oceanography (Pakistan).7: 1. 1992.This makes Pakistan the first Muslim country to undertake Antarctic Expedition and to establish a research station in Antarctica.
^Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2017)."Pakistan – Languages".Ethnologue: Languages of the World (20th ed.). Archived fromthe original on 2 September 2017.
^Rana, Shahbaz (19 July 2024)."Pakistan 27th in global population growth".The Express Tribune. Retrieved23 July 2024.One of the questions in the population census was about the mother-tongue. The number of Urdu speaking people have increased to 9.3% by 2023. But Punjabi-origin people have reduced to 37%. There is also a reduction in the Sindh language speaking people from 14.6% to 14.3%. the Pashto speaking people reduced from 18.3% to 18.2% but Balochi-language people increased from 3% to 3.4%. The number of Saraiki-language people was reduced from 12.2% to 12%.
^Rehman, Zia Ur (23 February 2015)."Identity issue haunts Karachi's Rohingya population".Dawn. Retrieved26 December 2016.Their large-scale migration had made Karachi one of the largest Rohingya population centres outside Myanmar but afterwards the situation started turning against them.
^Jaffrey, Shumaila (12 August 2015)."How the Uighurs keep their culture alive in Pakistan".BBC. Retrieved26 December 2016.Insa is one of a few thousand Uighur Muslims who live in Gilgit. The community is a mix of generations. Some left Xinjiang and the thriving trading town of Kashgar in 1949, while others are later arrivals. All say they were forced to leave as they were the victims of cultural and religious oppression in China.
^Istvan, Zoltan (13 March 2003)."Refugee Crisis Worsening In Western Kashmir".National Geographic. Archived fromthe original on 5 March 2010. Retrieved15 January 2017.The refugees claim that Indian soldiers forced them out of their homes ... For Kashmiri Muslims, Pakistan appeared safer than Indian-held Kashmir ... "She was also raped by the soldiers," Ahmad said. "Many of the other female refugees were also raped."
^Husain, Irfan (27 August 2012)."Faith in decline".Dawn, Irfan. Archived fromthe original on 4 December 2012. Retrieved16 December 2012.Interestingly, and somewhat intriguingly, 2 per cent of the Pakistanis surveyed see themselves as atheists, up from 1pc in 2005.
^Muhammad Qasim Zaman,Islam in Pakistan: A History (Princeton UP, 2018)online review
^Khan, Nichola (2016).Cityscapes of Violence in Karachi: Publics and Counterpublics. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-086978-6.... With a population of over 23 million Karachi is also the world's largest Muslim city, the world's seventh largest conurbation ...
^The 1998 Pakistani census states that there are 291,000 (0.22%) Ahmadis in Pakistan. However, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has boycotted the census since 1974 which renders official Pakistani figures to be inaccurate. Independent groups have estimated the Pakistani Ahmadiyya population to be somewhere between 2 million and 4 million Ahmadis. However, the 4 million figure is the most quoted figure and is approximately 2.2% of the country. See:
3 million: International Federation for Human Rights:International Fact-Finding Mission. Freedoms of Expression, of Association and of Assembly in Pakistan. Ausgabe 408/2, January 2005, S. 61 (PDF)
3–4 million: Commission on International Religious Freedom:Annual Report of the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. 2005, S. 130
^Dhulipala (2015, p. 19) "Within the subcontinent, ML propaganda claimed that besides liberating the 'majority provinces' Muslims it would guarantee protection for Muslims who would be left behind in Hindu India. In this regard, it repeatedly stressed the hostage population theory that held that 'hostage' Hindu and Sikh minorities inside Pakistan would guarantee Hindu India's good behaviour towards its own Muslim minority."
^Sohail, Riaz (2 March 2007)."Hindus feel the heat in Pakistan".BBC News. Retrieved22 February 2011.But many Hindu families who stayed in Pakistan after partition have already lost faith and migrated to India.
^"Pakistanis Attack 30 Hindu Temples".The New York Times. 7 December 1992. Retrieved15 April 2011.Muslims attacked more than 30 Hindu temples across Pakistan today, and the Government of this overwhelmingly Muslim nation closed offices and schools for a day to protest the destruction of a mosque in India.
^Amit Baruah; R. Padmanabhan (6 September 1997)."The stilled voice".Frontline. Chennai, India. Archived fromthe original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved30 June 2011.
^Goodwin, William (2002).Pakistan. Lucent Books. p. 79.ISBN978-1-59018-218-5.Pakistani food is similar to that of northern India, with a splash of Middle Eastern influence derived from other Muslim cultures over the centuries.
^Kathleen W. Deady (2001).Countries of the world :Pakistan. Capstone Press. pp. 13–15.ISBN978-0-7368-0815-6.
Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2022)."Pakistan".Ethnologue: Languages of the World (25 ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Archived fromthe original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved2 January 2023.
Akhtar, Rubina; Mirza, Sarwat Naz (January–June 2006)."Arid steppes of Balochistan (Pakistan)"(PDF).Science et changements planétaires / Sécheresse.17 (1). John Libbey:203–209.ISSN1777-5922. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 30 October 2023. Retrieved28 May 2024.
Allchin, F. Raymond (1993). "The Urban Position of Taxila and Its Place in Northwest India-Pakistan".Studies in the History of Art.31:69–81.JSTOR42620473.
Lieven, Anatol (2012).Pakistan: A Hard Country. PublicAffairs.ISBN978-1-61039-145-0.
Malik, Hafeez (2006).The Encyclopedia of Pakistan. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-597735-6.
Malik, Iftikhar (2005).Culture and Customs of Pakistan (Culture and Customs of Asia). Greenwood.ISBN978-0-313-33126-8.
McCartney, Matthew (2011).Pakistan: The Political Economy of Growth, Stagnation and the State, 1951–2009. Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-57747-2.
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