Pago Pago is home to one of the deepest natural deepwater harbors in theSouth Pacific Ocean, sheltered from wind and rough seas, and strategically located.[4][5]: 52 [6]: 12 The harbor is also one of the best protected in the South Pacific,[7]: 11 which gives American Samoa a natural advantage because it makes landing fish for processing easier.[7]: 61 Tourism, entertainment, food, andtuna canning are its main industries. As of 1993, Pago Pago was the world's fourth-largest tuna processor.[8]: 353 In 2009, the total value of fish landed in Pago Pago — about $200,000,000 annually — is higher than in any other port in any U.S. state or territory.[9] It is home to the largest tuna cannery in the world.[10][11][12]
Pago Pago is the only modern urban center in American Samoa[6]: 29 [13] and the main port of American Samoa.[14][15][16] It is also home to the territorial government, all the industry, and most of the commerce in American Samoa.[17]: 166 The Greater Pago Pago Metropolitan Area encompasses several villages strung together alongPago Pago Harbor.[18][19] One of the villages is itself named Pago Pago, and in 2010, that village had a population of 3,656. The constituent villages are:Utulei,Fagatogo,Malaloa, Pago Pago,Satala andAtu'u. Fagatogo is the downtown area, referred to as "town", and is home to the legislature, while the executive seat is in Utulei. Also in Fagatogo are theFono, police department, the Port of Pago Pago, and many shops and hotels. In 2000, the Greater Pago Pago area was home to 8,000 residents;[20] by 2010 the population had increased to 15,000.[21]
Rainmaker Mountain (Mount Pioa), located near Pago Pago, contributes to a weather pattern that results in the city having the highest annual rainfall of any harbor in the world.[22][23][24] It stands protectively over the eastern side of Pago Pago, making the harbor one of the most sheltered deepwater anchorages in the Pacific Ocean.[25]: 3
Historically, the strategic location of Pago Pago Bay played a direct role in the political separation ofWestern and Eastern Samoa. The initial reason that the U.S. was interested in Tutuila was its desire to use Pago Pago Harbor as a coaling station.[26]: 30–31 The town has the distinction of being the southernmost U.S. capital, and the only one located in theSouthern Hemisphere.
The origin of the namePago Pago is uncertain. One hypothesis suggests that it is derived from theSamoan language, where it is interpreted to mean "place of prayer."[27]
An early name for Pago Pago wasLong Bay (Samoan: O le Fagaloa), which was a name used by the first permanent inhabitants to settle in the Pago Pago area.[26]: 26 [34][35]: 123 It was also called O le Maputasi ("The Single Chief's House") in compliment to the Mauga, who lived atGagamoe in Pago Pago and was the senior to all the other chiefs in the area.[35]: 123
For a brief period in the 1830s, Pago Pago was also known as Cuthbert's Harbor, named after British Captain Cuthbert, who was the first European to enter Pago Pago Harbor.[36]
Pago Pago was first settled 4,000 years ago.[37] The area was initially settled by Polynesian navigators, who established a vibrant community rooted in agriculture, fishing, and the distinct cultural practices of Samoan society.[27] There is archeological evidence of people living in the Pago Pago Valley at least 1500–1300 years ago.[38] The ancient people of Tutuila produced clay pottery known as Samoan Plainware. The majority of these open bowls had plain designs and featured rounded bases. Such pottery has been retrieved from sites in Pago Pago, including atVaipito. The production of such pottery ceased approximately 1500 years ago.[39][40] A site in the Vaipito Valley has also revealed more substantial elements, such as constructions made from rocks, like house foundations and terraces (lau mafola).[41][42]
Ceramic findings have been retrieved at Vaipito, an inland area within Pago Pago village. A deposit here is thought to be an old hill-slope below a living area where people threw away their waste. Numerous large ceramic pieces have been retrieved here. The layer with the ceramics dates back to the time between 350 BCE and 10 CE. Another site, Fo’isia, is located approximately 100 meters from Vaipito, at the same elevation inland in Pago Pago. During sewer line construction, theAmerican Samoa Power Authority noticed many broken pieces of clay pottery. Five dates associated with the ceramics indicate a time range between 370 BCE and 130 CE.[43]
The island of Tutuila was part of theTuʻi Tonga Empire from the invasion around 950 CE to when Tongans were expelled in1250. According to Samoan folklore, a warrior from Pago Pago, Fua’au, is associated with driving the Tongans out of Tutuila. According to the legend, Fua’au's fiancé, Tauoloasi’i, was kidnapped and taken to Tonga while sleeping on an exquisite mat known as Moeilefuefue. Filled with anger at the loss of his fiancé and the renowned mat, Fua’au rallied the Tutuilans, encouraging them to revolt against the Tongan rule imposed byLautivunia.[44][45]
During the period of Tongan rule, political opponents and defeated Samoan warriors were exiled to Pago Pago. The surrounding settlements effectively functioned as a Samoan penal colony. In response to the oppression, the Samoans, under the leadership of paramount chiefMalietoa, eventually revolted against their Tongan rulers.[46] According to one source, it was Chief Fua’autoa of Pago Pago who successfully expelled the Tongans from Pago Pago.[47]
Until 1722, Pago Pago, like several other villages in American Sāmoa such asFagasā andVatia, existed as a ridge-top settlement. This upland community, now part of the National Park of American Sāmoa, was strategically situated to provide safety during a period marked by inter-island conflicts involvingSāmoa,Fiji,Tahiti, andTonga. The elevated location offered protection from coastal raids, as attackers arriving by boat posed a significant threat to shoreline settlements. By 1772, the majority of families had relocated from the highlands to the coast, establishing new homes near the shoreline. However, oral histories indicate that a few households continued to reside or farm in the upland areas into the late 19th century. Archeological findings at the site of Old Pago Pago include ancient rock walls, building foundations, and graves. Some of these graves are believed to belong to chiefs or ceremonial figures, such as ataupou (a ceremonial maiden), with legends suggesting one may have been interred in a bonito boat. The remnants of Old Pago Pago are accessible via theMount ‘Alava Trailhead atFagasā Pass, just west ofVaipito Valley.[48]
When Westerners first visited Tutuila, the Mauga was the leading matai (chief) of Pago Pago.[49]
An 1896 illustration of Pago Pago.From 1878 to 1951, it was acoaling and repair station for theU.S. Navy, known asUS Naval Station Tutuila.Boatmen in Pago Pago, 1907Pago Pago as seen in the early 1900sHHMSKaimiloa in 18871914 map of Pago Pago
In 1791, CaptainEdward Edwards, leading the British warship HMSPandora in the pursuit of theBounty mutineers, arrived at Pago Pago Harbor. During their search, the crew stumbled upon a French military uniform belonging to one ofPérouse’s men, who had been killed atAʻasu in 1787.[50][51]
In 1836, the English whalerElizabeth, captained by Cuthbert, became the first European vessel to enter Pago Pago Harbor. Captain Cuthbert is credited with ‘discovering’ Pago Pago and naming it Cuthbert Harbor.[53]
In the 1830s, two missionaries were assigned to Tutuila Island: Reverend Archibald W. Murray and his wife to Pago Pago and Reverend Barnden toLeone. They landed atFagasa Bay and hiked over the hill to the High Chief Mauga in Pago Pago. Mauga welcomed the missionaries and gave them support. RMSDunottar Castle later moved to Pago Pago, becoming the second ship to enterPago Pago Harbor.[25]: 79–80 Under the auspices of Maunga, Murray established a wooden residence in Pago Pago, where he endeavored to exemplify Christian living.[54][55]
In 1834, Matthew Hunkin arrived in Pago Pago and served as a companion to Archibald Murray, both residing under the patronage of High Chief Mauga. Together, they conducted visits to villages situated along the eastern end of Tutuila. Subsequently, both men relocated toLeone, where Murray undertook preparations to establish theMission Institute for Pacific Islanders atFagatele, situated on the outskirts of the Leone village.[56]
Beginning in 1836, whaling vessels started calling atPago Pago Harbor, quickly transforming it into a favored stopover. Crews found it to be a secure place to rest, take on supplies, and carry out repairs. As of 1866, whalers no longer visited the Samoan Islands as whaling activities had shifted farther north.[57]
In 1837, Tutuila’s chiefs and CaptainCharles Bethune of H.M.S.Conway reached an agreement on Pago Pago’s first documented commercial port regulations, finalized on December 27 of that year.[58][59]
In 1839, the Sāmoan Islands experienced its first recordedepidemic, which resulted in the death of High Chief Mauga of Pago Pago. After his passing, Manuma assumed the title.[63][64] After the death of his stepbrother Pomale, Manuma provoked controversy within the Christian community by eloping with Pomale's widow. As a result, theaiga deposed him from his position. Nevertheless, Manuma was later reinstated, and he presided as the Mauga of Pago Pago until his death in 1849.[65]
As early as 1839, American interest was generated for the Pago Pago area when CommanderCharles Wilkes, head of theUnited States Exploring Expedition, surveyed Pago Pago Harbor and the island. Wilkes' favorable report attracted so much interest that the U.S. Navy began planning a move to the Pago Pago area. During his time in Pago Pago, Wilkes negotiated a set of “Commercial Regulations” with the matais of Pago Pago under the leadership of Paramount Ali'i Mauga. Wilkes' treaty was never ratified, but captains and Samoan leaders operated by it.[66] Rumors of possible annexation by Britain or Germany were taken seriously by the U.S., and the U.S. Secretary of StateHamilton Fish sent ColonelAlbert Steinberger to negotiate with Samoan chiefs on behalf of American interests.[67] American interest in Pago Pago was also a result of Tutuila's central position in one of the world's richest whaling grounds.
On August 8, 1844,Archibald Wright Murray wrote a letter recounting how the Tutuilans, at one point, prepared to vacate their settlements and negotiate with the French while taking refuge in the highlands. Recognizing Pago Pago Harbor as the island’s most significant lure for European powers, they planned to cede it toFrance in return for a pledge safeguarding Tutuila’s independence.[68]
In 1871, the localsteamer business of W. H. Webb required coal and he sent Captain E. Wakeman to Samoa in order to evaluate the suitability of Pago Pago as a coaling station. Wakeman approved the harbor and alerted theU.S. Navy aboutGermany's intent to take over the area. The U.S. Navy responded a few months later by dispatching CommanderRichard Meade fromHonolulu, Hawaii to assess Pago Pago's suitability as a naval station. Meade arrived in Pago Pago onUSS Narragansett and made a treaty with the Mauga for the exclusive use of the harbor and a set of commercial regulations to govern the trading and shipping in Pago Pago. He also purchased land for a new naval station.[25]: 137–138 High Chief Mauga of Pago Pago stated his wish for the village to be recognized as Tutuila Island’s capital.[69]
In 1872, the chief of Pago Pago signed a treaty with the U.S., giving the American government considerable influence on the island.[70] It was acquired by the United States through a treaty in 1877.[71] One year after the naval base was built atPearl Harbor in 1887, the U.S. government established a naval station in Pago Pago.[72] It was primarily used as a fueling station for both naval- and commercial ships.[73]
During theTutuila War of 1877, all buildings in Pago Pago were destroyed. The war emerged during a tumultuous period, where Samoans were sharply divided over the future direction of their government. In response to the growing threat posed by the Puletua — a rising opposition faction — the Samoan leadership based inApia sentMamea to Washington, D.C. to negotiate an agreement with the U.S. While Mamea was abroad, the Puletua launched a rebellion, escalating the situation into full-scale war in Tutuila. To regain control, government forces stationed inLeone advanced toward Pago Pago, where the rebel leader Mauga was headquartered. The troops burned every building in Pago Pago and pursued Mauga along with several hundred followers toAunu’u Island. The Puletua faction on Tutuila, led by the former U.S. Consul toSāmoa, S. S. Foster, who had moved to Pago Pago after his dismissal, and Mauga, found Aunu’u incapable of supporting their forces. Consequently, they returned to Tutuila where they soon surrendered.[74][75]
In 1878, the U.S. Navy first established a coaling station, right outsideFagatogo. The United States Navy later bought land east of Fagatogo and on Goat Island, an adjacent peninsula. Sufficient land was obtained in 1898 and the construction ofUnited States Naval Station Tutuila was completed in 1902. The station commander doubled asAmerican Samoa's Governor from 1899 to 1905, when the station commandant was designated Naval Governor of American Samoa.The Fono (legislature) served as an advisory council to the governor.[76]: 84–85
Despite the Samoan Islands being a part of the United States, theUnited Kingdom and Germany maintained a strong naval presence in the area. Twice between 1880 and 1900, the U.S. Navy came close to taking part in a shooting war while its only true interest was the establishment of a coaling station in Pago Pago. The U.S. quietly purchased land around the harbor for the construction of the naval station. It rented land on Fagatogo Beach for $10/month in order to store the coal. AdmiralLewis Kimberly was ordered to Pago Pago while inApia waiting for transportation home after the hurricane of 1889. In Pago Pago, he selected a site for the new coaling station and naval base. In June 1890, theU.S. Congress passed an appropriation of $100,000 for the purpose of permanently establishing a station for the naval and commercial marine. With the appropriation, theState Department sent ConsulHarold M. Sewall from Apia to Pago Pago to buy six tracts of land for the project. Some parts were previously owned by the Polynesian Land Company, while other tracts were still owned by Samoan families. For the defense of the harbor in event of a naval war, the U.S. Navy wanted to purchase headlands and mountainsides above the Lepua Catholic Church which directly faced the harbor's entrance.[25]: 138–139
In 1883, a conflict began atPago Pago Bay between Mauga Lei and Mauga Manuma. The dispute revolved around the entitlement to the title "Mauga". Mauga Lei's actions led to widespread dissatisfaction among the residents ofFagatogo andAua, culminating in theTaua o Sa’ousoali'i conflict. The residents ofFagasā joined Pago Pago village in an effort to overthrow Mauga Lei and support Manuma. The uprising forced Mauga Lei's forces toAunuʻu. Mauga Lei, who had a close friendship with KingMalietoa Laupepa, secured intervention through two warships to resolve the hostilities. Intervention came in the form of a peace mission led by HMSMiranda, under CaptainWilliam A. Dyke Acland, and supported by the German gunboat SMSHyäne. Both Mauga Lei and Mauga Manuma were summoned to a peace conference aboard the HMSMiranda. Both initially resisted boarding the ship but eventually relented after diplomatic pressure. The agreement that followed emphasized reconciliation and required both parties to disarm publicly.[77][78] The conflict led to the deaths of 12 people.[79]
In 1887, theKaimiloa, a 171-ton steamer and the only warship in the fleet ofKing Kalākaua ofHawai‘i, was sent on a diplomatic mission to the Sāmoan Islands as part of the Hawaiian monarch's initiative to create a united Polynesian kingdom. The journey included visits to several key locations, including Pago Pago, which was an important trading hub at the time. Historical accounts document the trade of the Kaimiloa's cannons to the Samoans, with at least one of these cannons now preserved and on display at theJean P. Haydon Museum.[80][81]
On May 27, 1893, a branch of theLDS Church was established in Pago Pago. The church had first arrived on the island in 1863 and became formally organized on Tutuila in 1888.[83]
In 1898, aCalifornia-based construction and engineering firm was contracted to build the coal depot. The naval engineer in charge was W. I. Chambers. On April 30, 1899, CommanderBenjamin Franklin Tilley sailed fromNorfolk, Virginia onUSS Abarenda with a cargo of coal and steel for the project. The U.S. Navy was the only American agency present in the area, and it was made responsible for administering the new territory.[25]: 139–140
On April 17, 1900, the firstAmerican flag was raised at Sogelau Hill above the site of the new wharf and coaling facilities in Fagatogo. For the ceremony, a group of invitees fromApia arrived with German Governor Heinrich Solf onboardSMS Cormoran. USSAbarenda, home of B. F. Tilley and his new government, was in the harbor. American consul Luther W. Osborn arrived from Apia, and many spectators arrived from American Samoa villages and other countries. Tilley was the master of ceremonies and began the program by reading the Proclamation of the President of the United States, which asserted American sovereignty over the islands. Next was the reading of the Order of the Secretary of the Navy, followed by chiefs who read theDeed of Cession, which they had written and signed. Before raising the flag, reverend E. V. Cooper of theLondon Missionary Society (LMS) and reverend Father Meinaidier of the Roman Catholic Mission offered prayers. Students from the LMS school inFagalele sang the national anthem. The two ships,Comoran andAbarenda, fired the national salutes.[25]: 145–146 [26]: 111 TheDeed of Cession of Tutuila andAunu'u Islands was signed onGagamoe, and formalized the relationship between the U.S. and American Samoa. Gagamoe is an area in Pago Pago which is the Mauga family's communal and sacred land.[88][89]
English authorW. Somerset Maugham stayed atSadie Thompson Inn during his 6-week visit to Pago Pago in 1916.Guns were emplaced atBlunts andBreakers Points in 1940–42, covering Pago Pago Harbor.Remains of a World War II encampment aboveUtulei.The historic tramway on the World War II Heritage Trail
At the beginning of the 20th century, Pago Pago became American Samoa'sport of entry.[35]: 179
On April 11, 1904, the first public school in American Samoa, calledFagatogo, was established in thenaval station area. The school had two teachers and forty students at the time of its opening.[90]
From December 16, 1916, to January 30, 1917, English authorW. Somerset Maugham and his secretary and lover,Gerald Haxton, visited Pago Pago on their way fromHawai'i toTahiti. Also on board the ship was a passenger named Miss Sadie Thompson, who had been evicted from Hawaii for prostitution. She was later the main character in the popular short story,Rain (1921), a story of a prostitute arriving in Pago Pago.[91] Delayed because of a quarantine inspection, they checked into what is now known asSadie Thompson Inn. Maugham also met an American sailor here, who later appeared as the title character in another short story,Red (1921).[84][92] The Sadie Thompson Inn was added to theU.S. National Register of Historic Places in 2003.
In May 1917, when the U.S. joinedWorld War I, two German ships anchoring in Pago Pago were seized. The 10,000-tonElsass was towed to Honolulu and turned over to the U.S. Navy, while its smallergunboat,Solf, was refitted in Pago Pago and given the nameUSS Samoa. Wireless messaging between Pago Pago and Hawaii was routed throughFiji. As the British censored all messages through Fiji, the Navy quickly upgraded the facilities to go directly between Pago Pago and Honolulu.[25]: 188
On January 10, 1938, the flying boatSamoan Clipper exploded just after leaving Pago Pago Harbor. PilotEdwin Musick and his crew of six died in the accident.[94][95]
Pago Pago was a vital naval base for the U.S. duringWorld War II.[96] Limited improvements at the naval station took place in the summer of 1940, which included aMarine Corps airfield atTafuna. The new airfield was partly operational by April 1942, and fully operational by June. On March 15, 1941, the Marine Corps' 7th Defense Battalion arrived in Pago Pago and was the first Fleet Marine Force unit to serve in theSouth Pacific Ocean. It was also the first such unit to be deployed in defense of an American island. Guns were emplaced atBlunts andBreakers Points, covering Pago Pago Harbor. It trained the onlyMarine reserve unit to serve on active duty during World War II, namely the 1st Samoan Battalion, U.S. Marine Corps Reserve. The battalion mobilized after the attack on Pearl Harbor and remained active until January 1944.[76]: 85–86
In January 1942 Pago Pago Harbor was shelled by aJapanesesubmarine, but this was the only battle action on the islands during World War II.[97] On January 20, 1942, the 2nd Marine Brigade arrived in Pago Pago with about 5,000 men and various supplies of weaponry, including cannons and tanks.[98]
On October 7, 1949, the USSChehalis, a World War II oil and gas tanker, exploded and sank in Pago Pago Harbor. It remains the only shipwreck from that era found in the harbor and lies just over 100 feet beneath the current fuel dock. Measuring 90 meters in length, the wreck continues to be considered a source of pollution impacting the water quality as of 2002.[101][102]
Pago Pago was an important location forNASA'sApollo program from 1961 to 1972.Apollo 10,Apollo 11,Apollo 12,Apollo 13,Apollo 14 andApollo 17 landed by Tutuila Island, and the crew flew from Pago Pago to Honolulu on their way back to the mainland.[103][104] AtJean P. Haydon Museum are displays of anAmerican Samoa-flag brought to the Moon in 1969 by Apollo 11, as well as moonstones, all given as a gift to American Samoa by PresidentRichard Nixon following the return of the Apollo Moon missions.[105] The museum was officially opened in October 1971 with an opening featuringMargaret Mead as a guest speaker. TheNational Endowment for the Arts provided a start-up grant. The most valuable asset was an exquisite mat reputed to be theFala o Futa, the first important fine mat of Samoa, donated by Senate President HC Salanoa S.P. Aumoeualogo. The other major contribution was a cannon which came offKaimiloa, a 171-ton steamer and the only warship in the fleet ofKing Kalakaua of Hawai'i. The Hawaiian king sent the ship to the Samoan Islands in an effort at creating a Polynesian kingdom.[25]: 313
In 1965, the Tramway atMount ʻAlava was constructed as access to the TV transmission equipment on the mountain. It ran from atop Solo Hill at the end of the Togotogo Ridge aboveUtulei. It ascended 1.1 miles (1.8 kilometers) acrossPago Pago Harbor and landed at the 1,598 ft (487 m) Mount ʻAlava. It was one of the world's longest single-span cablecar routes.[17]: 167 [106]: 475 [107]
PresidentLyndon B. Johnson and First LadyLady Bird Johnson visited Pago Pago on October 18, 1966. Johnson remains the only U.S. president to have visited American Samoa.Lyndon B. Johnson Tropical Medical Center was named in honor of the president.[108] Landing ahead of theAir Force One was the press plane that carried seventy news reporters. The two-hour visit was televised throughout the country and the world. Governor H. Rex Lee and traditional leaders crammed ceremonies, entertainment, a brief tour, and a school dedication: the Manulele Tausala, Lady Bird Johnson School. The President gave a speech where he laid out the American policy for its lone South Pacific territory. The President and First Lady returned to American Samoa in December 1966, on their way to Prime Minister'sHarold Holt's funeral in Australia. GovernorOwen Aspinall offered a quiet welcome as theWhite House asked for there to be no ceremonies during the visit. Around 3,000 spectators went to thePago Pago International Airport to see the President.[25]: 292
In May 1967, GovernorH. Rex Lee signed a law making Pago Pago aduty-free port. Excise taxes, however, were imposed on automobiles, firearms, luxury goods, and auto parts. The excise tax was heaviest on secondhand motor vehicles and machinery. It was nicknamed the "Junk Bill" as it intended to keep out old used merchandise.[25]: 285
In November 1970,Pope Paul VI visited Pago Pago on his way to Australia.[109][25]: 292
Shortly after Christmas in 1970, a village fire destroyed the legislative chambers and adjacent facilities. It was decided that the new Legislature would be placed permanently in the center of the township of Fagatogo, the traditional Malae o le Talu, at a cost of $500,000. A triple celebration in October 1973 marked the dedication of the new Fono compound, its 25th anniversary, and the holding in Pago Pago of the Pacific Conference of Legislators. First Lady Lillian "Lily" Lee unveiled the officialseal of American Samoa carved onifelele by master wood-carverSven Ortquist, which was mounted in front of the new Fono. The Arts Council Choir sang the territorial anthem, "Amerika Samoa", as composer HCTuiteleleapaga Napoleone conducted. The territorial bird, lupe, and flower, mosooi, were officially announced during the same ceremony.[25]: 302
Pago Pago International Airport2007 Annual Pago Pago Championship Busfest
Shipping in and out of Pago Pago experienced an economic boom from 1970 to 1974. Flights into Pago Pago International Airport continued to increase in the early 1970s, with the Office of Tourism reporting 40,000 visitors and calling for the construction of additional hotels. Service to American Samoa by air was offered byPan American (four weekly flights),Air New Zealand (four weekly flights), andUTA (four weekly flights). From 1974 to 1975, records show that 78,000 passengers moved by air between the two Samoas and thatPolynesian Airlines collected $1.8 million from the route.[25]: 311 Pago Pago Harbor became a popular stop for yachts in the early 1970s.[25]: 312
In 1972, Army Sp. 4 Fiatele Taulago Teʻo was killed inVietnam and his body was flown home to Pago Pago where his many awards were presented to his parents. The first Army Reserve Center was named after him.[25]: 316 Two additional American Samoans were killed in the Vietnam War, Cpl. Lane Fatutoa Levi and LCpl. Fagatoele Lokeni in 1970 and 1968, respectively.[110]
Then-Vice PresidentJoe Biden visiting Pago Pago in 2016.
Since 2000,American Samoa Department of Education through its school athletic program is the host of the East & West High School All-Star Football Game. It has been held at the field inGagamoe in Pago Pago.[113]
In 2008, the tenthFestival of Pacific Arts was held in Pago Pago, drawing 2,500 participants from 27 countries.[114] Also in 2008,Asuega Fa’amamata, one of the few female chiefs in the territory, was elected by Pago Pago as its new senator, becoming the sole female legislator in theAmerican Samoa Fono.[115]
In 2010,Tri Marine Group, the world's largest supplier of fish, purchased the plant assets ofSamoa Packing and committed $34 million for a state-of-the-art tuna packing facility.[111]
Mike Pence was the third sitting U.S. vice president to visit American Samoa[116] when he made a stopover in Pago Pago in April 2017.[117] He addressed 200 soldiers here during his refueling stop.[118] U.S. Secretary of StateRex Tillerson visited town on June 3, 2017.[119]
Security camera footage of the2009 tsunami surging through a parking lot
On September 29, 2009, anearthquake struck in theSouth Pacific, nearSamoa andAmerican Samoa, sending atsunami into Pago Pago and surrounding areas. The tsunami caused moderate to severe damage to villages, buildings and vehicles and caused 34 deaths and hundreds of injuries.[124][125] It was an 8.3 magnitude earthquake which caused 5-foot (1.5 m) waves to hit the city. It caused major flooding and damaged numerous buildings. A local power plant was disabled, 241 homes were destroyed, and 308 homes had major damage. Shortly after the earthquake, PresidentBarack Obama issued a federal disaster declaration, which authorized funds for individual assistance (IA), such as temporary housing.[126]
The largest wave hit Pago Pago at 6:13 pm local time, with an amplitude of 6.5 feet (2.0 m).[127]
The city of Pago Pago encompasses several surrounding villages,[133] including Fagatogo, the legislative and judicial capital, andUtulei, the executive capital and home of the Governor.[84] The town is located between steep mountainsides and the harbor. It is surrounded by mountains such asMount Matafao (2,142 ft),Rainmaker Mountain (1,716 ft),Mount ʻAlava (1,611 ft),Mount Siona (892 ft),Mount Tepatasi (666 ft), andMount Matai (850 ft), all mountains protecting Pago Pago Harbor.[134] The main downtown area is Fagatogo on the south shore of Pago Pago Harbor, the location of theFono (territorial legislature), the port, the bus station and the market. The banks are in Utulei and Fagotogo, as are theSadie Thompson Inn and other hotels. Thetuna canneries, which provide employment for a third of the population of Tutuila, are in Atu'u on the north shore of the harbor. The village of Pago Pago is at the western head of the harbor.[135]
Pago Pago Harbor nearly bisectsTutuila Island. It is facing south and situated almost midpoint on the island. Its bay is 0.6 miles (0.97 km) wide and 2.5 miles (4.0 km) long. A 1,630-foot (500 m) high mountain, Mount Pioa (Rainmaker Mountain), is located at the east side of the bay. Half of American Samoa's inhabitants live along Pago Pago's foothills and coastal areas. The downtown area is known as Fagatogo and is home to government offices, port facilities, Samoan High School and theRainmaker Hotel. Two tuna factories are located in the northern part of town. The town is centered around the mouth of theVaopito Stream.[20]Pago Pago Harbor collects water from numerous streams, including the 1.7-mile (2.7 km) Vaipito Stream, which is the area's largest watershed. Not far from whereRoute One crosses Vaipito Stream is Laolao Stream, which discharges into the head of Pago Pago Harbor. It merges with Vaipito Stream in Pago Pago Park, a few yards from the harbor.
In the village of Pago Pago, fromMalaloa toSatala, there are a total of eleven rivers or streams. These include Vaipito, Gagamoe, Laolao, Pago, Leau, Vaima, Utumoa, and Aga.Tidal mud flats associated with the mouth of the Vaopito Stream were filled in order to createPago Pago Park at the head ofPago Pago Harbor.[136]: 24–6 Five species ofGobie fish,Mountain bass,Freshwater eel,Mullet and fourshrimp species have been recorded along the lower reach of the Vaipito Stream.[136]: 24–7, 24–13 One of the Goby species,Stiphodon hydoreibatus, isendemic to the Samoan Islands and found nowhere else on Earth.[137]
The Fono (legislature) is located inFagatogo, which is the center of town.
The Greater Pago Pago Area stretches into neighboring villages:[28]
Fagatogo is home to thePago Pago Post Office, museum, movie theater, bars, and taxi services. It is locally known as Downtown Pago Pago.[5]: 51
Utulei andMaleimi are home to some Pago Pago-based hotels.
Satala andAtu'u are home to Pago Pago's tuna industry.
Tafuna is the location of the Pago Pago International Airport, seven miles (11 km) south of Pago Pago.
Some houses are Western-style; others are more traditional Samoan housing units. All houses have running water and plumbing.[140] It has been described as a "thoroughlyAmericanized" city.[141] Fagatogo is Pago Pago's chief governmental and commercial center.[142]
Pago Pago Park is a public park by the harbor in Pago Pago. It lies by the Laolao Stream at the very end of Pago Pago Harbor. It is a 20-acre (8.1 ha) recreational complex and culture center. There are a ball field, sports court and boat ramp in the park. The park houses businesses such as the American Samoa Development Bank.[143][144] There are basketball and tennis courts, a football field, a gymnasium, a bowling alley and several Korean food kiosks in the park. The Korean House was built as a social center for the Korean fishermen in town.[17]: 170
Pago Pago is the primary entry point for visits to National Park of American Samoa, and the city is situated immediately south of the park.[3][146] Its park visitor center is located at the head of Pago Pago Harbor: Pago Plaza Visitor Center (Pago Plaza, Suite 114, Pago Pago, AS 96799).[147][148] This center also contains a collection of Samoan artifacts, corals, and seashells.[106]: 479 The center expanded with 700 sq. ft. in July 2019, adding new demonstrations and exhibits. An item at the new exhibit is the skull of a sperm whale which washed up onOfu Island in 2015. Several video screens and panels inform visitors about Samoan dolphins and whales. The exhibit also contains a 6-foot (1.8 m) by 6-foot (1.8 m)siapo which was made by college students as well as an ʻenu basket woven with traditional materials.[149]
The nearest hotels to the national park are also located in Pago Pago.[150] Other parts of the park, on the islands ofTaʻū andOfu, can be visited via commercial inter-island air carrier from Pago Pago International Airport.
The national park is home to tropical rainforest, tall mountains, beaches, and some of the tallest sea cliffs in the world (3,000 ft; 910 m).[151] It was authorized by the U.S. Congress in 1988 to preserve thepaleotropical rain forest, Indo-Pacificcoral reefs, and Samoan culture. It officially opened in 1993 when a 50-year lease was signed between the U.S. federal government, thegovernment of American Samoa, and local village chiefs (Matai). It is the only U.S. National Park where the U.S. federal government leases the land from local governments instead of being the land owner. It is a 8,257-acre (3,341 ha) park which provides habitat for a variety of tropical wildlife, including coral reef fish, seabirds, flyingfruit bats, and numerous other species of animals. Approximately 2,600 acres (1,100 ha) are on Tutuila, and the remainder is on the other islands and the ocean. The park's offshore coral reefs provide habitat for 1,000 species ofcoral reef andpelagic fishes.[152] The park is home to over 150 species of coral. Notable terrestrial species are thePacific tree boa and the FlyingMegabat, which has a three-foot (0.91 m) wingspread.[153]
Pago Pago is vulnerable to natural and man-made disasters. Vulnerabilities include heavy storms, flooding,tsunamis, mudslides, andearthquakes. American Samoa has experienced severalcyclones and tropical storms, which also increase risks of rock slides and floodings.[154]
The capital city is situated at the head ofPago Pago Harbor in a sheltered area that has been described as relatively safe duringhurricanes.[141]'
In the past century, Pago Pago has experienced over 50 minor tsunamis. The earliest and most impactful tsunami before the2009 Samoa earthquake and tsunami occurred in 1917. This event was triggered by a magnitude 8.3 earthquake at the outer border of the northern end of theTonga Trench, approximately 200 km off the Tutuila coast. The initial wave, reaching a height of about 3 m., resulted in the destruction of numerous houses and two churches. No human casualties were reported. Another notable event was the tsunami associated with the1960 Valdivia earthquake. While waves in the head of Pago Pago Bay reached a maximum height of 5 m., they caused minimal damage to several houses, with no reported casualties. The most destructive tsunami in Pago Pago's recorded history took place in 2009. Studies indicate that during this incident, wave amplification occurred in the Pago Pago Bay due to its long and narrow morphology. Waves that measured approximately 1 m. at the mouth of Pago Pago Bay surged to a maximum height of 7 m. at the head of Pago Pago Bay. The resulting inundation caused extensive damage in Pago Pago Harbor, extending up to 500 m. inland, and reaching a maximum run-up of 8 m., leading to 34 casualties across Tutuila Island.[155]
Tutuila Island is a basalticvolcanic dome created by five volcanoes aligned along two or possibly three rift zones—fractures in the basement rock. The island's formation dates back to thePliocene and earlyPleistocene epochs, approximately 5 million to 500,000 years ago. Volcanic activity ceased around 10,000 years ago, leaving the island volcanically dormant today. The central feature of Tutuila's geology is thePago Volcano, which was active between 1.54 and 1.28 million years ago. The volcano's caldera, approximately 6 miles long and 3 miles wide, collapsed 1.27 million years ago, creatingPago Pago Harbor. The natural harbor formed in the partially submerged remnants of thecaldera, which cuts deeply into the south-central coast of the island. The village of Pago Pago is situated at the narrowest part of Tutuila, near the center of the collapsed caldera. The northern half of the Pago Volcano shield remains, while the southeastern portion has been eroded to form the harbor.[156][157][158]
Erosion has also played a significant role in shaping the landscape. Following the collapse of the Pago Volcano, theVaipito Valley andPago Pago Bay were sculpted by streams and geological processes. The Vaipito Stream, which follows a fault line associated with the volcano, carved steep valley walls, exposing rock formations ofbasalt,andesite, andtrachyte. Over time, colluvial and fluvial sediments filled the lower reaches of the valley, creating a narrow, flat floodplain. Coralline sands and basaltic sediments deposited at the stream's mouth contributed to the formation of a narrow coral-rubble reef flat along Pago Pago Bay's shoreline. Pago Pago Harbor marks the southeastern boundary of the caldera. The northwest rim of the caldera, known as theMaugaloa Ridge, forms the southern boundary of theNational Park of American Samoa.[156][157][158]
At 1,716 ft (523 m),Rainmaker Mountain gives the city the highest annual rainfall of any harbor in the world.[23]
Pago Pago has atropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classificationAf) with hot temperatures and abundant year-round rainfall. All official climate records for American Samoa are kept at Pago Pago. The hottest temperature ever recorded was 99 °F (37 °C) on February 22, 1958. Conversely, the lowest temperature on record was 59 °F (15 °C) on October 10, 1964.[159] The average annual temperature recorded at the weather station atPago Pago International Airport is 82 °F (28 °C), with a temperature range of about two degrees Fahrenheit separating the average monthly temperatures of the coolest and hottest months.
Pago Pago has been named one of the wettest places on Earth. Due to its warm winters, the planthardiness zone is 13b. It receives 128.34 inches (3,260 mm) of rain per year. The rainy season lasts from October through May, but the town experiences warm and humid temperatures year-round. Besides it being wetter and more humid from November–April, this is also the hurricane season. The frequency of hurricanes hitting Pago Pago has increased dramatically in recent years. The windy season lasts from May to October. As warmer easterlies are forced up and over Rainmaker Mountain, clouds form and drop moisture on the city. Consequentially, Pago Pago experiences twice the rainfall of nearby Apia in Western Samoa.[8]: 350–351 The average yearly rainfall in Pago Pago Harbor is 197 inches (5,000 mm), whereas in neighboring Western Samoa, it is around 118 inches (3,000 mm) per year.[160]
Rainmaker Mountain, which is also known as Mount Pioa, is a designatedNational Natural Landmark.[3] It is notable for its ability to extract rain in tremendous quantities. Rising 1,716 feet (523 m) out of the ocean, the Pioamonolith blocks the path of the low clouds heavy with fresh water as they are pushed along by the southeast tradewinds. The southeast ridge of Rainmaker Mountain reaches up into the clouds creating downfalls of enormous proportions.[26]: 30
Source: NOAA (relative humidity and sun 1961–1990)[161][162][163]
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. Updates on reimplementing the Graph extension, which will be known as the Chart extension, can be found onPhabricator and onMediaWiki.org.
Pago Pago Post Office (Luman'ai Building) in Fagatogo
The village of Pago Pago proper had a 2010 population of 3,656. However, Pago Pago also encompasses neighboring villages. The Greater Pago Pago Area was home to 11,500 residents in 2011.[164] Around 90 percent of American Samoa's population lives around Pago Pago.[165][166] American Samoa's population grew by 22 percent in the 1990s; nearly all of this growth took place in Pago Pago.[167]
The proportion of Pago Pago residents born outside of American Samoa was 26 percent in the early 1980s, and 39 percent in the late 1980s. The percentage of residents born abroad reached 44 percent in 1990. Many of the residents are American Samoans who were born abroad, and the village also has had an increasing number of new residents fromFar East countries such asSouth Korea.[136]: 24–22
The village of Pago Pago, the Greater Pago Pago Area andMaʻopūtasi County observed a notable reduction in population during the period from 2010 to 2020. Specifically, the county registered a 16.8 percent decline in population, while Pago Pago proper recorded an 18 percent decrease. This decline surpassed the overall population decrease for American Samoa, which stood at 10.5 percent during the same timeframe. Among the villages in the county, onlyAnua experienced a positive growth in population, contrasting with declines in villages such asFagatogo (-16.8%),Satala (-26.6%), andUtulei (-30%).[169]
Pago Pago is the seat of the judiciary (Fagatogo), legislature and Governor's Office (Utulei).[28]
Pago Pago operates under a dual local government system, consisting of county councils and village councils. Each system serves distinct yet complementary roles in governance and community administration. Pago Pago is part ofMaʻopūtasi County, which is governed by a county council responsible for regional services such as law enforcement, public health initiatives, and broader infrastructure projects. The county council is composed of elected officials who serve four-year terms, ensuring governance that aligns with the needs of the area. On a more localized level, thePago Pago Village Council (PPVC) oversees the daily management of the village. This council, made up of elected village leaders, handles essential community functions, including maintaining local infrastructure, managing budgets, and ensuring the safety and welfare of residents. In addition to administrative duties, the council plays a vital role in resolving disputes and preserving traditional Samoan customs and values.[170]
TheFeleti Barstow Public Library is located in Pago Pago.[171] In 1991, severe tropicalCyclone Val hit Pago Pago, destroying the library that existed there. The current Barstow library, constructed in 1998, opened on April 17, 2000.[172]
"Charlie the Tuna" is the symbol of theStarKist cannery, the largest tuna processing plant in the world.Tuna boats in the Port of Pago Pago
Pago Pago is the center of commerce in American Samoa.[173][176][177] It is home to all the industry and most of the commerce in American Samoa.[17]: 166 It is the number one port in the United States in terms of value of fish landed - about $200,000,000 per year.[9] In 2007, tuna exports accounted for 93% of all exports, amounting to $446 million.[178]
Tuna canning is the main economic activity in town. Exports are almost exclusively tuna canneries such asChicken of the Sea andStarKist, which are both located in Pago Pago. These also occupy 14 percent of American Samoa's total workforce as of 2014.[179] The most industrialized area in the territory can be found between Pago Pago Harbor and theTafuna-Leone Plain, which also are the two most densely populated places in the islands.[180]
American Samoa was the world's fourth-largest tuna processor in 1993. The primary industry is tuna processing by the Samoa Packing Co. (Chicken of the Sea) andStarKist Samoa, a subsidiary ofH.J. Heinz. The first cannery was opened in 1954. Canned fish, canned pet food, and fish meal from skin and bones account for 93 percent of American Samoa's industrial output.[8]: 353
Dining establishments, amusement facilities, professional services, and bars can be found throughout Pago Pago. Pago Pago proper was home to 225 registered commercial enterprises as of year 2000. Within the Pago Pago watershed, farmland (faatoaga) are located in two areas in the southern half of theVaipito Valley as well as inHappy Valley and on the west side of Pago Pago village. Farmland is also found byFagatogo,Atu'u, Punaoa Valley,Lepua,Aua, andLeloaloa.[136]: 24–24, 24–25
Centers for shopping are Pago Plaza, which consists of smaller stores selling handcrafts and souvenirs, and Fagatogo Square Shopping Center, which is home to larger shops.[133] This shopping mall is next-door toFagatogo Market inFagatogo, which is considered the main center of Pago Pago. It is home to several restaurants, shops, bars, and often live entertainment and music. Souvenirs are often sold at the market when cruise ships are visiting town. Locals also sell handmade crafts at the dock and on main street.Mount ʻAlava, the canneries inAtu'u,Rainmaker Mountain (Mount Pioa), andPago Pago Harbor are all visible from the market. The main bus station is located immediately behind the market.[181][182]
Pago Pago is aduty-free port and prices on imported goods are lower than in other parts of theSouth Pacific Ocean.[17]: 166 GovernorH. Rex Lee signed a law making Pago Pago a duty-free port in May 1967.[25]: 285
Tourism inAmerican Samoa is centered around Pago Pago. It receives 34,000 visitors per year, which is one-fourth of neighboring country ofSamoa. 69.3 percent of visitors are from theUnited States as of 2014.[186]
Until 1980, one could experience the view of Mt. Avala by taking anaerial tramway over the harbor, but on April 17 of that year aU.S. Navy plane, flying overhead as part of theFlag Day celebrations, struck the cable; the plane crashed into a wing of theRainmaker Hotel.[187] The tramway was repaired, but closed not long after. The tram remains unusable, although according toLonely Planet, plans have been put forth to reopen it, but in January 2011 the cable was damaged by TropicalCyclone Wilma, fell into the harbor and has not been repaired. GovernorLolo Matalasi Moliga announced in 2014 that he would look into restoring the cable car.[188]
Pago Pago Harbor is theport of entry for vessels arriving in American Samoa.[192] Many cruise boats and ships land at Pago Pago Harbor for reprovision reasons, such as to restock on goods and to utilize American-trained medical personnel.[193] Pago Pago Harbor is one of the world's largest natural harbors.[164] It has been named one of the best deepwater harbors in the South Pacific Ocean,[4][194] or one of the best in the world as a whole.[195]
Pago Pago is a port of call for South Pacificcruise ships, includingNorwegian Cruise Line[196] andPrincess Cruises.[197] However, cruise ships do not take on passengers in Pago Pago, but typically arrive in the morning and depart in the afternoon. Thirteen cruise ships were scheduled to visit Pago Pago in 2017, bringing 31,000 visitors.[198] Pago Pago Harbor can accommodate two cruise ships at the same time, and has done so on several occasions.[199]
Pago Pago International Airport (PPG) is located atTafuna, eight miles (13 km) southwest of Pago Pago. There are international flights to Samoa 4–7 times daily byPolynesian Airlines:[132] Pago Pago is a 35-minute flight from Apia in Samoa. Most flights are to and fromFagali'i.[106]: 512 [200] There is only one flight destination from the territory to the United States:Honolulu International Airport, a five-hour flight from Pago Pago byHawaiian Airlines. Of the 88,650 international arrivals in 2001, only 10 percent were tourists. The rest came to visit relatives, for employment reasons, or in transit. Most international visitors are from the independent country of Samoa.[106]: 468–469
Scheduled intra-territorial flights are available to the islands of Taʻū and Ofu, which take 30 minutes by air from Pago Pago.
Near Pila F. Palu Co. Inc. Store, a road runs up the hill intoHappy Valley, and on the side of this road, six World War II ammunition bunkers can be seen on the left before reaching a dirt road. The dirt road, also located on the left side, leads to a big concrete bunker which was used as naval communications headquarters during World War II.[203]: 411–412 Over fiftypillbox fortifications can be found along the coastline on Tutuila Island. The largest of these is theMarine Corps communication bunker in Pago Pago.[204] It is located in theAutapini area, which is betweenMalaloa and Happy Valley.[203]: 416–417
At one time there were a number ofmangrove forests around the Pago Pago area, but these are now all gone, with the exception of a few scattered individual trees surviving atAiia on the east side of Pago Pago Bay. No trace of mangroves are longer found withinFagatogo village limits, thus contradicting its name (“bay of mangroves).[205]
TheRed-vented bulbul, an introduced bird species, has become widespread on Tutuila Island. It was first observed in Apia during the 1940s and later reported in Pago Pago in 1958. Another introduced species, theRock dove, has a more recent and less well-documented history in the Samoan Islands. Records from the 1950s indicate that a flock of 20 Rock Doves was kept by a family in Pago Pago during this period.[207]
TheGrey-backed tern is occasionally observed feeding within Pago Pago Harbor, while theBlack noddy is frequently sighted flying over the same area. TheCommon myna, an adaptable urban bird, is commonly encountered in the developed regions surrounding Pago Pago.[208]
Jean P. Haydon Museum was constructed in 1917 and houses historical artifacts such as canoes. It is named for its founder, the wife of GovernorJohn Morse Haydon
Next Goal Wins (2014), British documentary filmed in Pago Pago.
Samoa, California was named in honor of American Samoa. It was assumed that the harbor in Pago Pago looked similar to that of the town, and it consequentially got the name Samoa, CA in the 1890s.[215]
^Hamel, Jean-Francois (2018).World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation. Volume II: The Indian Ocean to the Pacific. Academic Press. Page 636. ISBN 9780128052037.
^Chi, Sang and Emily Moberg Robinson (2012).Voices of the Asian American and Pacific Islander Experience. ABC-CLIO. Page 54. ISBN 9781598843552.
^U.S. Government Printing Office (2010).Impact of Increased Minimum Wage of [i.e. On] American Samoa and CNMI. Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. Page 13. ISBN 9780160813726.
^United States. Army. Corps of Engineers. Pacific Ocean Division (1975).Water Resources Development by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in American Samoa, 1975. Division Engineer, U.S. Army Engineer Division, Pacific Ocean, Corps of Engineers. Page 36.
^Mack, Doug (2017).The Not-Quite States of America: Dispatches From the Territories and Other Far-Flung Outposts of the USA. W.W. Norton & Company. Page 62.ISBN9780393247602.
^abLal, Brij V. and Kate Fortune (2000).The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1. University of Hawaii Press. Page 101.ISBN9780824822651.
^Sparks, Karen Jacobs (2010).Britannica Book of the Year 2010. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Page 509.ISBN9781615353668.
^Atkinson, Brett and Charles Rawlings-Way (2016).Lonely Planet Rarotonga, Samoa & Tonga (Travel Guide). Lonely Planet. Page 147.ISBN9781786572172.
^Craig, Robert D. (2004).Handbook of Polynesian Mythology. ABC-CLIO. Page 17.ISBN9781576078945.
^Fraser, Peter (2010).More Curious Than Cautious. Dog Ear Publishing. Page 122.ISBN9781598587708.
^Leib, Amos Patten (1972).The Many Islands of Polynesia. Schuster Merchandise. Page 60.ISBN9780684130101.
^Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960).Amerika Samoa: a history of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. United States Naval Institute. Page 123.
^abcGray, John Alexander Clinton (1980).Amerika Samoa. Arno Press.ISBN9780405130380.
^Richards, Rhys (1992).Samoa's Forgotten Whaling Heritage: American Whaling in Samoan Waters 1824-1878. Lithographic Services, Limited. Page 63. ISBN 9780473016074.
^Stahl, Dean A. and Karen Landen (2001).Abbreviations Dictionary. CRC Press. Page 1451.ISBN9781420036640.
^Sand, Christophe and David J. Addison (2008).Recent Advances in the Archaeology of the Fiji/West-Polynesia Region. Department of Anthropology, Gender and Sociology.University of Otago. Dunedin: New Zealand. Page 93. ISBN 9780473145866.
^Sand, Christophe and David J. Addison (2008).Recent Advances in the Archaeology of the Fiji/West-Polynesia Region. Department of Anthropology, Gender and Sociology.University of Otago. Dunedin: New Zealand. Page 110. ISBN 9780473145866.
^Sand, Christophe and David J. Addison (2008).Recent Advances in the Archaeology of the Fiji/West-Polynesia Region. Department of Anthropology, Gender and Sociology.University of Otago. Dunedin: New Zealand. Page 91. ISBN 9780473145866.
^Sand, Christophe and David J. Addison (2008).Recent Advances in the Archaeology of the Fiji/West-Polynesia Region. Department of Anthropology, Gender and Sociology.University of Otago. Dunedin: New Zealand. Page 103. ISBN 9780473145866.
^Todd, Ian (1974).Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama. Angus & Robertson. Page 69. ISBN 9780207127618.
^Krämer, Augustin (1994). The Samoa Islands: Constitution, pedigrees and traditions. University of Hawaiʻi Press. Page 436. ISBN 9780824816339.
^Linnekin, Jocelyn, Hunt, Terry, Lang, Lang and McCormick, Timothy (November 2006). "Ethnographic Assessment and Overview: National Park of American Samoa". Technical Report 152. Pacific Cooperative Parks Study Unit.University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.
^Lutali, A.P. and William J. Stewart. The Chieftal System in Twentieth Century America: Legal Aspects of the Matai System in the Territory of American Samoa. 4 Ga. J. Int’l & Compar. L. 387 (1974). Page 390. Retrieved on January 20, 2024, fromhttps://digitalcommons.law.uga.edu/gjicl/vol4/iss2/8/.
^Salmond, Anne (2011). Bligh: William Bligh in the South Seas. Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 9781742287812.
^Gilson, Richard Phillip (1970).Samoa 1830 to 1900: The Politics of a Multi-cultural Community.Oxford University Press. Page 68. ISBN 9780195503012.
^Knox, Thomas W. (1889).The Boy Travellers Australasia. Page 140.
^Neems, Hugh (2014).Beyond The Reef. Page 19. ISBN 9781291739145.
^Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration.United States Naval Institute. Page 38. ISBN 9780870210747.
^Neems, Hugh (2016).A Vision Shared. George Lambert. Page 45. ISBN 9780955728235.
^Gilson, Richard Phillip (1970).Samoa 1830 to 1900: The Politics of a Multi-cultural Community.Oxford University Press. Pages 2, 144 and 183. ISBN 9780195503012.
^Gilson, Richard Phillip (1970).Samoa 1830 to 1900: The Politics of a Multi-cultural Community.Oxford University Press. Pages 147 and 149. ISBN 9780195503012.
^Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration.United States Naval Institute. Pages 40-41. ISBN 9780870210747.
^Sorensen, Stan and Theroux, Joseph. The Samoan Historical Calendar, 1606-1997. Government of American Samoa. Page 113.
^Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration.United States Naval Institute. Page 41. ISBN 9780870210747.
^Aitaoto, Fuimaono Fini (2021).Progress and Developments of the Churches in the Samoan Islands: Early 21St Century. LifeRich Publishing. Page 96. ISBN 9781489735867.
^Gilson, Richard Phillip (1970).Samoa 1830 to 1900: The Politics of a Multi-cultural Community.Oxford University Press. Page 112. ISBN 9780195503012.
^Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration.United States Naval Institute. Pages 41-42. ISBN 9780870210747.
^Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration.United States Naval Institute. Page 43. ISBN 9780870210747.
^ Sunia, Fofō Iosefa Fiti (2001). Puputoa: Host of Heroes - A record of the history makers in the First Century of American Samoa, 1900-2000. Suva, Fiji: Oceania Printers. Page 183. ISBN 9829036022.
^Freeman, Donald B. (2010).The Pacific. Routledge. Page 167.ISBN9780415775724.
^Gilson, Richard Phillip (1970).Samoa 1830 to 1900: The Politics of a Multi-cultural Community.Oxford University Press. Page 125. ISBN 9780195503012.
^Gilson, Richard Phillip (1970).Samoa 1830 to 1900: The Politics of a Multi-cultural Community.Oxford University Press. Page 279. ISBN 9780195503012.
^Levi, Werner (1947).American-Australian Relations. University of Minnesota Press. Page 73.ISBN9780816658152.
^Dixon, Joe C. (1980).The American Military and the Far East. Diane Publishing. Page 139.ISBN9781428993679.
^Stanley, George Edwards (2005).The Era of Reconstruction and Expansion (1865–1900). Gareth Stevens. Page 36.ISBN9780836858273.
^Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration.United States Naval Institute. Page 65. ISBN 9780870210747.
^Pearl, Frederic and Sandy Loiseau-Vonruff (2007). “Father Julien Vidal and the Social Transformation of a Small Polynesian Village (1787–1930): Historical Archaeology at Massacre Bay, American Samoa”.International Journal of Historical Archaeology. 11(1): pages 37-39. ISSN 1092-7697.
^abcRottman, Gordon L. (2002).World War II Pacific Island Guide: A Geo-military Study. Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN9780313313950.
^Churchward, William Brown (1887).My Consulate in Samoa: A Record of Four Years' Sojourn in the Navigators Islands, with Personal Experiences of King Malietoa Laupepa, His Country and His Men.Richard Bentley and Son. Pages 335-346.
^Ryan, James and Joan Schwartz (2021).Picturing Place: Photography and the Geographical Imagination.Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781000548785.
^Edwards, Elizabeth (2021).Raw Histories: Photographs, Anthropology and Museums.Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781000181296.
^Chappell, David A. (2016).Double Ghosts: Oceanian Voyagers on Euroamerican Ships.Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781315479118.
^Cook, Kealani (2016).Return to Kahiki: Native Hawaiians in Oceania.Cambridge University Press. Page 95. ISBN 9781107195899.
^"Robert Louis Stevenson".Encyclopedia Britannica. 5 February 2019.
^Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.Family and Church History Department (2005). Deseret News 2006 Church Almanac: Joseph’s Journeys.Deseret Book Company. Page 285. ISBN 9781590385562.
^Carpenter, Allan (1993).Facts about the Cities. Wilson. Page 11.ISBN9780924208003.
^Lavatai, Sanele Faasua (2018).The Ifoga Ritual in Samoa in Anthropological and in Biblical Perspectives. Missionshilfe Verlag. Page 116. ISBN 9783946426066.
^Tu’u’u, Misilugi Tulifau Tofaeono (2002).History of Samoa Islands: Supremacy & Legacy of the Malietoa. Tuga'ula Publication. Page 427. ISBN 9780958219914.
^Stoler, Ann Laura and Willy Brandt (2006).Haunted by Empire: Geographies of Intimacy in North American History. Duke University Press. Page 88.ISBN9780822337249.
^Rogal, Samuel J. (1997).A William Somerset Maugham Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. Page 244.ISBN9780313299162.
^Lal, Brij V. and Kate Fortune (2000).The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia.University of Hawai'i Press. Page 101. ISBN 9780824822651.
^Stanley, David (1989).South Pacific Handbook.Moon Publications. Page 358. ISBN 9780918373298.
^Cashman, Sean (1989).America in the Twenties and Thirties: The Olympian Age of Franklin Delano Roosevelt.NYU Press. Page 524. ISBN 9780814772089.
^Labor, Earle (2013).Jack London: An American Life. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Page 272.ISBN9781466863163.
^Rill, James C. (2003).A Narrative History of the 1st Battalion, 11th Marines During the Early History and Deployment of the 1st Marine Division, 1940–43. Merriam Press. Page 32.ISBN9781576383179.
^Kennedy, Joseph (2009).The Tropical Frontier: America's South Sea Colony. University of Hawaii Press. Page 207.ISBN9780980033151.
^Jadacki, Matt (2011).American Samoa 2009 Earthquake and Tsunami: After-Action Report. DIANE Publishing. Page 2.ISBN9781437942835.
^Dunbar, Paula K. (2015).Pacific Tsunami Warning System: A Half Century of Protecting the Pacific, 1965–2015. Government Printing Office. Page 56.ISBN9780996257909.
^Furuto, Sharlene B.C.L. (2013).Social Welfare in East Asia and the Pacific.Columbia University Press. Page 210. ISBN 9780231530989.
^Carter, Stan M. (2013).Climbing Matafao. Author Solutions, Inc. Page 81. ISBN 9781462405275.
^McDonald, George (1994).Frommer's Guide to the South Pacific, 1994–1995. Prentice Hall Travel. Page 262.ISBN9780671866600.
^abRauzon, Mark J. (2016).Isles of Amnesia: The History, Geography, and Restoration of America's Forgotten Pacific Islands. University of Hawai'i Press, Latitude 20. Page 7.ISBN9780824846794.
^Holmes, Lowell D. (1974).Samoan Village. Holt McDougal. Page 98.ISBN9780030779251
^Goodwin, George McDonald (1994).Frommer's Guide to the South Pacific, 1994–1995. Prentice Hall Travel. Page 258.ISBN9780671866600.
^Lonely Planet Publications (1990).Samoa, Western & American Samoa. Lonely Planet Publications. Page 141.ISBN9780864420787.
^National Geographic (2016).National Geographic Guide to National Parks of the United States. National Geographic. Page 319.ISBN9781426216510.
^National Geographic Society (2012).National Geographic Guide to National Parks of the United States. National Geographic Books. Page 233.ISBN9781426208690.
^Smith, Darren L. and Penny J. Hoffman (2001).Parks Directory of the United States. Omnigraphics. Page 70.ISBN9780780804401.
^Moker, Molly (2008).America's National Parks: Complete Coverage of All 391 National Parks, Including Scenic Trails, Battlefields, and Other Historic Sites. Fodor's Travel Pub. Page 429.ISBN9781400016280.
^Harris, Ann G. and Esther Tuttle (2004).Geology of National Parks. Kendall Hunt. Page 603.ISBN9780787299705.
^Goldin, Meryl Rose (2002).Field Guide to the Samoan Archipelago: Fish, Wildlife, and Protected Areas. Bess Press. Pages 273-274.ISBN9781573061117.
^Butcher, Russell D. and Lynn P. Whitaker (1999).National Parks and Conservation Association Guide to National Parks: Pacific Region. Globe Pequot Press. Page 82.ISBN9780762705733.
^Corlew, Kati (2015).Sauniuniga mo Puapuaga ma Suiga o le Tau i Amerika Sāmoa (inSamoan language). East-West Center. Pages 3-5.ISBN9780866382601.
^Brieuc Riou, Eric Chaumillon, Jean-Luc Schneider, Thierry Corrège, Catherine Chagué. “The sediment-fill of Pago Pago Bay (Tutuila Island, American Samoa): New insights on the sediment record of past tsunamis.” Sedimentology, Blackwell Publishing, In press, 10.1111/sed.12574. hal-02422133. Retrieved on January 19, 2024, fromhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/sed.12574
^abUnited States. Federal Highway Administration (1992). "Pago Pago Park, New Access Road: Environmental Impact Statement". Northwestern University. Page 3-13-1.
^Census of population and housing (2000): American Samoa Summary Social, Economic, and Housing Characteristics (2000). DIANE Publishing. Page 147.ISBN9781428985490.
^Aitaoto, Fuimaono Fini (2021).Progress and Developments of the Churches in the Samoan Islands: Early 21St Century. LifeRich Publishing. ISBN 9781489735867.
^Aitaoto, Fuimaono Fini (2021).Progress and Developments of the Churches in the Samoan Islands: Early 21St Century. LifeRich Publishing. Pages 122 and 266. ISBN 9781489735867.
^Blackford, Mansel G. (2007).Pathways to the Present: U.S. Development and Its Consequences in the Pacific. University of Hawaii Press. Page 196.ISBN9780824830731.
^Craig, Robert D. (2011).Historical Dictionary of Polynesia. Rowman & Littlefield. Page 26.ISBN9780810867727.
^Stanley, David (1999).Moon Handbooks Tonga-Samoa. David Stanley. Page 168.ISBN9781566911740.
^Brillat, Michael (1999).South Pacific Islands. Hunter Publishing, Inc. Page 136.ISBN9783886181049.
^Clausing, Jeri (21 January 2001)."AGING WELL IN AMERICAN SAMOA".The New York Times.Archived from the original on October 19, 2017. RetrievedNovember 28, 2017.
^Goodwin, George McDonald (1994).Frommer's Guide to the South Pacific, 1994–1995. Prentice Hall Travel. Page 205.ISBN9780671866600.
^Harssel, Jan van and Richard H. Jackson (2014).National Geographic Learning's Visual Geography of Travel and Tourism. Cengage Learning. Page 526.ISBN9781305176478.
^Moos, Grant. 1980 [1997]. "April 17, 1980: Fiery crash halts Flag Day".Samoa News, April 18, 1980 (reprinted in theSamoa News, January 22, 1997: 4). Cited in Sorensen, Stan, and Joseph Theroux.The Samoan Historical Calendar, 1606–2007Archived 2009-02-27 at theWayback Machine. p. 93.
^Amerson, A. Binion, W. Arthur Whistler, and Terry D. Schwaner (1982). “Wildlife and Wildlife Habitat of American Samoa II: Accounts of Flora and Fauna.U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
^Muse, Corey and Shirley (1982).The Birds and Birdlore of Samoa: O Manu Ma Tala'aga o Manu o Samoa.Pioneer Press. Pages 87 and 117. ISBN 9780936546056.
^Engbring, John and Fred L. Ramsey (1986). “A 1986 Survey of the Forest Birds of American Samoa”.U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
^"american samoa".americansamoa.gov.Archived from the original on October 20, 2017. RetrievedNovember 28, 2017.
^Moss, Marilyn (2011).Raoul Walsh: The True Adventures of Hollywood's Legendary Director. University Press of Kentucky. Page 101.ISBN9780813133942.
^abAmerican Film Institute (1993).The American Film Institute Catalog of Motion Pictures Produced in the United States, Volume 1. University of California Press. Page 1111.ISBN9780520079083.
^Reyes, Luis and Ed Rampell (1995).Made in paradise: Hollywood's films of Hawai'i and the South Seas. Mutual Pub. Page 1940.ISBN9781566470896.
^Fleming, E.J. (2008).Paul Bern: The Life and Famous Death of the MGM Director and Husband of Harlow. McFarland. Page 73.ISBN9780786452743.
^Capace, Nancy (1999).Encyclopedia of California. North American Book Dist LLC. Page 399.ISBN9780403093182.
^Hunter, James Michael (2013).Mormons and Popular Culture: The Global Influence of an American Phenomenon. Literature, art, media, tourism, and sports. Volume 2. ABC-CLIO. Page 237.ISBN9780313391675.
^"About".gstproductions.com.Archived from the original on October 24, 2017. RetrievedNovember 28, 2017.
^Sutter, Frederic Koehler (1989). The Samoans: A Global Family.University of Hawai'i Press. Page 209. ISBN 9780824812386.
^Sutter, Frederic Koehler (1989). The Samoans: A Global Family.University of Hawai'i Press. Page 210. ISBN 9780824812386.
^Sutter, Frederic Koehler (1989). The Samoans: A Global Family.University of Hawaiʻi Press. Page 192. ISBN 9780824812386.
^Sunia, Fofō Iosefa Fiti (2001). Puputoa: Host of Heroes - A record of the history makers in the First Century of American Samoa, 1900-2000. Suva, Fiji: Oceania Printers. Page 114. ISBN 9829036022.
^Sunia, Fofō Iosefa Fiti (2001). Puputoa: Host of Heroes - A record of the history makers in the First Century of American Samoa, 1900-2000. Suva, Fiji: Oceania Printers. Page 82. ISBN 9829036022.
.jpg)
.jpg)
.png)
_(14780577521).jpg)
.jpg)
_02.jpg)
