Paganism (from Latin pāgānus'rural, rustic', later 'civilian') is a term first used in the fourth century byearly Christians for people in theRoman Empire who practicedpolytheism,[1] orethnic religions other thanJudaism. In the time of the Roman Empire, individuals fell into the pagan class either because they were increasingly rural and provincial relative to the Christian population, or because they were notmilites Christi (soldiers of Christ).[2][3] Alternative terms used in Christian texts werehellene,gentile, andheathen.[1]Ritual sacrifice was an integral part of ancientGreco-Roman religion[4] and was regarded as an indication of whether a person was pagan or Christian.[4] Paganism has broadly connoted the "religion of thepeasantry".[1][5]
During and after theMiddle Ages, the termpaganism was applied to any non-Christian religion, and the term presumed a belief in "false gods".[6][7] The origin of the application of the term"pagan" to polytheism is debated.[8] In the 19th century, paganism was adopted as a self-descriptor by members of various artistic groups inspired by theancient world. In the 20th century, it came to be applied as a self-descriptor by practitioners ofmodern paganism,modern pagan movements andPolytheistic reconstructionists. Modern pagan traditions often incorporate beliefs or practices, such asnature worship, that are different from those of the largest world religions.[9][10]
It is crucial to stress right from the start that until the 20th century, people did not call themselves pagans to describe the religion they practiced. The notion of paganism, as it is generally understood today, was created by the early Christian Church. It was a label that Christians applied to others, one of the antitheses that were central to the process of Christian self-definition. As such, throughout history it was generally used in a derogatory sense.
— Owen Davies, Paganism: A Very Short Introduction, 2011[14]
The termpagan derives fromLate Latinpaganus, revived during theRenaissance. Itself deriving fromclassical Latinpagus which originally meant 'region delimited by markers',paganus had also come to mean 'of or relating to the countryside', 'country dweller', 'villager'; by extension, 'rustic', 'unlearned', 'yokel', 'bumpkin'; in Roman militaryjargon, 'non-combatant', 'civilian', 'unskilled soldier'. It is related topangere ('to fasten', 'to fix or affix') and ultimately comes fromProto-Indo-European*pag- ('to fix' in the same sense):[15]
The adoption ofpaganus by the Latin Christians as an all-embracing, pejorative term for polytheists represents an unforeseen and singularly long-lasting victory, within a religious group, of a word of Latin slang originally devoid of religious meaning. The evolution occurred only in the Latin west, and in connection with the Latin church. Elsewhere, Hellene or gentile (ethnikos) remained the word for pagan; and paganos continued as a purely secular term, with overtones of the inferior and the commonplace.
Medieval writers often assumed thatpaganus as a religious term was a result of the conversion patterns during theChristianization of Europe, where people in towns and cities were converted more easily than those in remote regions, where old ways tended to remain. However, this idea has multiple problems. First, the word's usage as a reference to non-Christians pre-dates that period in history. Second, paganism within the Roman Empire centred on cities. The concept of an urban Christianity as opposed to a rural paganism would not have occurred to Romans duringEarly Christianity. Third, unlike words such asrusticitas,paganus had not yet fully acquired the meanings (of uncultured backwardness) used to explain why it would have been applied to pagans.[17]
Paganus more likely acquired its meaning in Christian nomenclature viaRoman military jargon (see above). Early Christians adopted military motifs and saw themselves asMilites Christi (soldiers of Christ).[15][17] A good example of Christians still usingpaganus in a military context rather than a religious one is inTertullian'sDe Corona Militis XI.V, where the Christian is referred to aspaganus (civilian):[17]
Apud hunc [Christum] tam miles est paganus fidelis quam paganus est miles fidelis.[18]
With Him [Christ] the faithful citizen is a soldier, just as the faithful soldier is a citizen.[19]
Paganus acquired its religious connotations by the mid-4th century.[17] As early as the 5th century,paganos was metaphorically used to denote persons outside the bounds of the Christian community. Following thesack of Rome by theVisigoths just over fifteen years after theChristian persecution of paganism under Theodosius I,[20] murmurs began to spread that the old gods had taken greater care of the city than the Christian God. In response,Augustine of Hippo wroteDe Civitate Dei Contra Paganos ('The City of God against the Pagans'). In it, he contrasted the fallen "city of Man" with the "city of God", of which all Christians were ultimately citizens. Hence, the foreign invaders were "not of the city" or "rural".[21][22][23]
The term pagan was not attested in the English language until the 17th century.[24] In addition toinfidel andheretic, it was used as one of severalpejorative Christian counterparts togoy (גוי /נכרי) as used in Judaism, and tokafir (كافر, 'unbeliever') andmushrik (مشرك, 'idolater') as in Islam.[25]
In the Latin-speakingWestern Roman Empire of the newlyChristianizing Roman Empire,Koine Greek became associated with thetraditional polytheistic religion ofAncient Greece and was regarded as a foreign language (lingua peregrina) in the west.[26] By the latter half of the 4th century in the Greek-speakingEastern Empire, pagans were—paradoxically—most commonly calledHellenes (Ἕλληνες, lit. "Greeks") The word had almost entirely ceased being used in a cultural sense.[27][28] It retained that meaning for roughly the first millennium of Christianity.
This was influenced by Christianity's early members, who wereJewish. The Jews of the time distinguished themselves from foreigners according to religion rather thanethno-cultural standards, and early Jewish Christians would have done the same. Since Hellenic culture was the dominant pagan culture in the Roman east, they referred to pagans as Hellenes. Christianity inherited Jewish terminology for non-Jews and adapted it to refer to non-Christians with whom they were in contact. This usage is recorded in theNew Testament. In thePauline epistles,Hellene is almost always juxtaposed withHebrew regardless of actual ethnicity[28]
The usage of Hellene as a religious term was initially part of an exclusively Christian nomenclature, but some Pagans began to defiantly call themselves Hellenes. Other pagans even preferred the narrow meaning of the word from a broad cultural sphere to a more specific religious grouping. However, there were many Christians and pagans alike who strongly objected to the evolution of the terminology. The influentialArchbishop of ConstantinopleGregory of Nazianzus, for example, took offence at imperial efforts to suppress Hellenic culture (especially concerning spoken and written Greek) and he openly criticized the emperor.[27]
The growing religious stigmatization of Hellenism had achilling effect on Hellenic culture by the late 4th century.[27]
By late antiquity, however, it was possible to speak Greek as a primary language while not conceiving of oneself as a Hellene.[29] The long-established use of Greek both in and around theEastern Roman Empire as alingua franca ironically allowed it to instead become central in enabling the spread of Christianity—as indicated for example, by the use of Greek for theEpistles of Paul.[30] In the first half of the 5th century, Greek was the standard language in which bishops communicated,[31] and theActa Conciliorum ("Acts of the Church Councils") were recorded originally in Greek and then translated into other languages.[32]
"Heathen" comes fromOld English:hæðen (not Christian or Jewish); cf.Old Norseheiðinn. This meaning for the term originated fromGothichaiþno (gentile woman) being used to translate Hellene[33] inWulfila's Bible, the first translation of the Bible into aGermanic language. This may have been influenced by the Greek and Latin terminology of the time used for pagans. If so, it may be derived from Gothichaiþi (dwelling on theheath). However, this is notattested. It may even be a borrowing of Greekἔθνος (ethnos) viaArmenianhethanos.[34]
The term has recently been revived in the forms "Heathenry" and "Heathenism" (often but not always capitalized), as alternative names for themodern Germanic pagan movement, adherents of which may self-identify as Heathens.[citation needed]
It is perhaps misleading even to say that there was such a religion as paganism at the beginning of [the Common Era] ... It might be less confusing to say that the pagans, before their competition with Christianity, had no religion at all in the sense in which that word is normally used today. They had no tradition of discourse about ritual or religious matters (apart from philosophical debate or antiquarian treatise), no organized system of beliefs to which they were asked to commit themselves, no authority-structure peculiar to the religious area, above all no commitment to a particular group of people or set of ideas other than their family and political context. If this is the right view of pagan life, it follows that we should look on paganism quite simply as a religion invented in the course of the second to third centuries AD, in competition and interaction with Christians, Jews and others.
Defining paganism is very complex and problematic. Understanding the context of its associated terminology is important.[36]Early Christians referred to the diverse array ofcults around them as a single group for reasons of convenience andrhetoric.[37] While paganism generally impliespolytheism, the primary distinction between classical pagans and Christians was not one ofmonotheism versus polytheism, as not all pagans were strictly polytheist. Throughout history, many of them believed in asupreme deity. However, most such pagans believed in a class of subordinate gods/daimons—seehenotheism—or divineemanations.[13] To Christians, the most important distinction was whether or not someone worshipped theone true God. Those who did not (polytheist, monotheist, oratheist) were outsiders to theChurch and thus considered pagan.[38] Similarly, classical pagans would have found it peculiar to distinguish groups by the number ofdeities followers venerate. They would have considered the priestly colleges (such as theCollege of Pontiffs orEpulones) and cult practices more meaningful distinctions.[39]
Referring to paganism as a pre-Christian indigenous religion is equally untenable. Not all historical pagan traditions were pre-Christian or indigenous to their places of worship.[36]
Owing to the history of its nomenclature, paganism traditionally encompasses the collective pre- and non-Christian cultures in and around theclassical world; including those of the Greco-Roman, Celtic, Germanic, and Slavic tribes.[40] However, modern parlance offolklorists andcontemporary pagans in particular has extended the original four millennia scope used by early Christians to include similar religious traditions stretching far intoprehistory.[41]
Paganism came to be equated by Christians with a sense of hedonism, representing those who are sensual, materialistic, self-indulgent, unconcerned with the future, and uninterested in more mainstream religions. Pagans were usually described in terms of this worldlystereotype, especially among those drawing attention to what they perceived as the limitations of paganism.[42] ThusG. K. Chesterton wrote: "The pagan set out, with admirable sense, to enjoy himself. By the end of his civilization he had discovered that a man cannot enjoy himself and continue to enjoy anything else."[43] In sharp contrast,Swinburne the poet would comment on this same theme: "Thou hast conquered, O pale Galilean; the world has grown grey from thy breath; We have drunken of things Lethean, and fed on the fullness of death."[44]
Recently, theethnocentric andmoral absolutist origins of the common usage of the term pagan have been proposed,[45][46] with scholar David Petts noting how, with particular reference to Christianity, "...local religions are defined in opposition to privileged 'world religions'; they become everything that world religions are not, rather than being explored as a subject in their own right."[47] In addition, Petts notes how various spiritual, religious, and metaphysical ideas branded as "pagan" from diverse cultures were studied in opposition to Abrahamism in early anthropology, a binary he links to ethnocentrism and colonialism.[48]
Ludwig Feuerbach defined the paganism ofclassical antiquity, which he termedHeidentum ('heathenry') as "the unity of religion and politics, of spirit and nature, of god and man",[49] qualified by the observation that man in the pagan view is always defined byethnicity, i.e., As a result, every pagan tradition is also a national tradition. Modern historians define paganism instead as the aggregate of cult acts, set within a civic rather than a national context, without a written creed or sense oforthodoxy.[50]
The developments in the religious thought of the far-flungRoman Empire duringLate Antiquity need to be addressed separately, because this is the context in whichEarly Christianity itself developed as one of several monotheistic cults, and it was in this period that the concept ofpagan developed in the first place. As Christianity emerged fromSecond Temple Judaism andHellenistic Judaism, it stood in competition with other religions advocating pagan monotheism, including the cults ofDionysus,[51]Neoplatonism,Mithraism,Gnosticism, andManichaeanism.[citation needed]Dionysus in particular exhibits significant parallels with Christ, so that numerous scholars have concluded that the recasting ofJesus the wandering rabbi into the image ofChrist the Logos, the divine saviour, reflects the cult of Dionysus directly. They point to the symbolism of wine and the importance it held in the mythology surrounding both Dionysus and Jesus Christ;[52][53] Wick argues that the use of winesymbolism in theGospel of John, including the story of theMarriage at Cana at which Jesus turns water into wine, was intended to show Jesus as superior to Dionysus.[54] The scene inThe Bacchae wherein Dionysus appears before King Pentheus on charges of claiming divinity is compared to the New Testament scene of Jesus being interrogated byPontius Pilate.[54][55][56]
Men ofTheth (Shala) practicing thegjâmë – theAlbanian lamentation of the dead – in 1937. The earliest figurative representations of this practice in traditional Albanian-inhabited regions appear onDardanian funerary stelae of classical antiquity.[57]
Proto-Albanian speakers were Christianized under theLatin sphere of influence, specifically in the 4th century CE, as shown by the basicChristian terms in Albanian, which are ofLatin origin and entered Proto-Albanian before theGheg–Tosk dialectal diversification.[58][59] Regardless of the Christianization,ancient paganism persisted among Albanians, and especially within the inaccessible and deep interior[60] – whereAlbanian folklore evolved over the centuries in a relatively isolatedtribal culture and society[61] – it has continued to persist, or at most it was partially transformed by the Christian, and later Muslim and Marxist beliefs, that were either to be introduced by choice or imposed by force.[62] The Albanian traditional customary law (Kanun) has held a sacred – although secular – longstanding, unwavering and unchallenged authority with a cross-religious effectiveness over the Albanians, which is attributed to an earlier pagan code common to all theAlbanian tribes.[63] Historically, the Christian clergy has vigorously fought, but without success, thepagan rituals practiced by Albanians fortraditional feasts and particular events, especially the fire rituals (Zjarri).[64][65]
Pagan Continuity in Mani and Mistra (800–1100) Christianity was introduced late in Mani, with the first Greek temples converted into churches during the 11th century. Byzantine monkNikon "the Metanoite" (Νίκων ὁ Μετανοείτε) was sent in the 10th century to convert the predominantlypagan Maniots. Although his preaching began the conversion process, it took over 200 years for the majority to accept Christianity fully by the 11th and 12th centuries.Patrick Leigh Fermor noted that the Maniots, isolated by mountains, were among the last Greeks to abandon the old religion, doing so towards the end of the 9th century:
Sealed off from outside influences by their mountains, the semi-troglodytic Maniots themselves were the last of the Greeks to be converted. They only abandoned the old religion of Greece towards the end of the ninth century. It is surprising to remember that this peninsula of rock, so near the heart of the Levant from which Christianity springs, should have been baptised three whole centuries after the arrival ofSt. Augustine in far-awayKent.[66]
According toConstantine VII inDe Administrando Imperio, the Maniots were referred to as 'Hellenes' and only fullyChristianized in the 9th century, despite some church ruins from the 4th century indicating early Christian presence. The region's mountainous terrain allowed the Maniots to evade the Eastern Roman Empire's Christianization efforts, thus preserving pagan traditions, which coincided with significant years in the life ofGemistos Plethon.
Another safe area for the pagans was the city of Harran which, Despite the persecution of its pagan inhabitants by Byzantine Emperor Maurice, remained a largely pagan city well into the early Islamic period. When the city was besieged by the armies of theRashidun Caliphate in 639–640, it was the pagan community that negotiated its peaceful surrender. Under the subsequent rule of the caliphates, Harran became a major settlement within theDiyar Mudar region and retained a significant degree of autonomy. During theFirst Fitna, the people of Harran sided withMu'awiya I overAli at theBattle of Siffin in 657, which allegedly resulted in a brutal retaliation by Ali, who massacred much of the population.[67]
Under theUmayyad Caliphate (661–750), Harran prospered and was selected as the capital by the last Umayyad caliph,Marwan II, from 744 to 750. This move may have been influenced by the city's pagan sympathies and its strategic position near the empire's eastern provinces.[68] The city's prominence under Umayyad rule saw it grow as a cultural and scholarly center, with the establishment of the first Muslim university in 717 underUmar II, attracting scholars from across the Islamic world.[69]
Although Harran lost its capital status under theAbbasid Caliphate, it continued to flourish, particularly during the reign ofHarun al-Rashid (786–809), when its university became a key center for translation and intellectual activity.[70] The local religion, blending elements of Mesopotamian paganism and Neoplatonism, persisted into the 10th century, though periodic decrees enforced conversions to Islam, especially underAl-Ma'mun in 830.[71] Nonetheless, Harran retained its heterogeneity, with a population that included Muslims, Christians, Jews, and a variety of other religious groups.
The medieval church accused sects deemed heretical such as theWaldensians and Cathars of participating in pagan fertility rites.[72]
Arab paganism gradually disappeared duringMuhammad's era throughIslamization.[73][74] The sacred months of the Arab pagans were the 1st, 7th, 11th, and 12th months of the Islamic calendar.[75] After Muhammad had conqueredMecca he set out to convert the pagans.[76][77][78] One of the last military campaigns that Muhammad ordered against the Arab pagans was theDemolition of Dhul Khalasa. It occurred in April and May 632 AD, in 10AH of the Islamic Calendar.Dhul Khalasa is referred to as both an idol and a temple, and it was known by some as theKa'ba of Yemen, built and worshipped by polytheist tribes.[79][80][81]
After theFrench Revolution, the French lawyerGabriel André Aucler (mid 1700s–1815) adopted the nameQuintus Nautius and sought torevive paganism, styling himself as its leader. He designedreligious clothing and performed pagan rites at his home. In 1799, he publishedLa Thréicie, presenting his religious views. His teachings were later analyzed byGérard de Nerval inLes Illuminés (1852).[85]Admiringancient Greece andancient Rome, Aucler supported theFrench Revolution and saw it as a path to restoring an ancient republic.[86] He took the name Quintus Nautius, claimed Roman priestly lineage, and performedOrphic rites at his home.[87] His followers were mainly his household.[85] In 1799, he publishedLa Thréicie, advocating a revival of paganism in France, condemning Christianity, and promotinguniversal animation.[88]
In the 17th century, the description of paganism turned from a theological aspect to anethnological one, and religions began to be understood as part of theethnic identities of peoples, and the study of the religions of so-called primitive peoples triggered questions as to the ultimate historicalorigin of religion.Jean Bodin viewed pagan mythology as a distorted version of Christian truths.[89]Nicolas Fabri de Peiresc saw the paganreligions of Africa of his day as relics that were in principle capable of shedding light on the historical paganism of Classical Antiquity.[90]
The 19th century also saw much scholarly interest in the reconstruction of pagan mythology from folklore or fairy tales. This was notably attempted by theBrothers Grimm, especiallyJacob Grimm in hisTeutonic Mythology, andElias Lönnrot with the compilation of theKalevala. The work of the Brothers Grimm influenced other collectors, both inspiring them to collect tales and leading them to similarly believe that the fairy tales of a country were particularly representative of it, to the neglect of cross-cultural influence. Among those influenced were the RussianAlexander Afanasyev, the NorwegiansPeter Christen Asbjørnsen andJørgen Moe, and the EnglishmanJoseph Jacobs.[91]
Great God! I'd rather be A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn; So might I, standing on this pleasant lea, Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn; Have sight ofProteus rising from the sea; Or hear oldTriton blow his wreathèd horn.
A mysterious document published inKrur in 1929, attributed to orientalistLeone Caetani, suggested that Italy'sWorld War I victory and the rise offascism were influenced by Etruscan-Roman rites.[94]
The 1960s and 1970s saw a resurgence inneo-Druidism as well as the rise ofmodern Germanic paganism in the United States and inIceland. In the 1970s,Wicca was notably influenced by feminism, leading to the creation of an eclectic,Goddess-worshipping movement known asDianic Wicca.[95] The 1979 publication ofMargot Adler'sDrawing Down the Moon andStarhawk'sThe Spiral Dance opened a new chapter in public awareness of paganism.[96] With the growth and spread of large, pagan gatherings and festivals in the 1980s, public varieties ofWicca continued to further diversify into additional, eclectic sub-denominations, often heavily influenced by theNew Age andcounter-culture movements. These open, unstructured or loosely structured traditions contrast withBritish Traditional Wicca, which emphasizes secrecy and initiatory lineage.[97]
The public appeal for pre-Christian Roman spirituality in the years followingfascism was largely driven byJulius Evola. By the late 1960s, a renewed "operational" interest in pagan Roman traditions emerged from youth circles around Evola, particularly concerning the experience of theGruppo di Ur.[98] Evola's writings incorporated concepts from outside classical Roman religion, such asBuddhism,Hinduism,sexual magic, and privateritual nudity. This period saw the rise of theGruppo dei Dioscuri in cities like Rome, Naples, and Messina, which published a series of four booklets, including titles such asL'Impeto della vera cultura andRivoluzione Tradizionale e Sovversione, before fading from public view.[99] The Evolian journalArthos, founded inGenoa in 1972 byRenato del Ponte, expressed significant interest in Roman religion. In 1984, theGruppo Arx revived Messina'sDioscuri activities, and Reghini'sPythagorean Association briefly resurfaced inCalabria andSicily from 1984 to 1988, publishingYghìeia.
Other publications include the GenoeseIl Basilisco (1979–1989), which released several works on pagan studies, andPolitica Romana (1994–2004), seen as a high-level Romano-pagan journal. One prominent figure was actorRoberto Corbiletto, who died in a mysterious fire in 1999.The 1980s and 1990s also saw an increasing interest in serious academic research andreconstructionist pagan traditions. The establishment and growth of the Internet in the 1990s brought rapid growth to these, and other pagan movements.[97]
By the time of thecollapse of the formerSoviet Union in 1991,freedom of religion was legally established across Russia and a number of other newly independent states, allowing for the growth in both Christian and non-Christian religions.[100]
Summer Solstice Ritual held in collaboration byYSEE and Pietas Comunità Gentile (2023)
In the 2000s, Associazione Tradizionale Pietas began reconstructing temples across Italy and sought legal recognition from the state, drawing inspiration from similar groups likeYSEE in Greece. In 2023, Pietas participated in theECER meeting, resulting in the signing of the Riga Declaration, which calls for the recognition of European ethnic religions.[101] Public rituals, such as those celebrating the ancient festival of theNatale di Roma, have also resumed in recent years.[102][103][104]
The idea of practicing Roman religion in the modern era has spread beyond Italy, with practitioners found in countries across Europe and the Americas. The most prominent international organization isNova Roma, founded in 1998, with active groups worldwide.[105]
Somemegaliths are believed to have religious significance.Children standing withThe Lady of Cornwall in a neopagan ceremony in EnglandNeopaganhandfasting ceremony at Avebury (Beltane 2005)
However, there often exists a distinction or separation between some polytheistic reconstructionists such as Hellenism and revivalist neopagans like Wiccans. The divide is over numerous issues such as the importance of accurateorthopraxy according to ancient sources available, the use and concept of magic, which calendar to use and which holidays to observe, as well as the use of the term pagan itself.[106][107][108]
In 1717John Toland became the first Chosen Chief of the Ancient Druid Order, which became known as the British Circle of the Universal Bond.[109] Many of the revivals, Wicca and Neo-Druidism in particular, have their roots in 19th centuryRomanticism and retain noticeable elements ofoccultism orTheosophy that were current then, setting them apart from historical rural (paganus) folk religion. Most modern pagans, however, believe in the divine character of the natural world and paganism is often described as an Earth religion.[110]
There are a number of neopagan authors who have examined the relation of the 20th-century movements of polytheistic revival with historical polytheism on one hand and contemporary traditions of folk religion on the other.Isaac Bonewits introduced a terminology to make this distinction.[111]
Neopaganism
The overarching contemporary pagan revival movement which focuses on nature-revering/living, pre-Christian religions and/or other nature-based spiritual paths, and frequently incorporating contemporary liberal values[citation needed]. This definition may include groups such asWicca, Neo-Druidism, Heathenry, and Slavic Native Faith.
Prudence Jones and Nigel Pennick in theirA History of Pagan Europe (1995) classify pagan religions as characterized by the following traits:
Polytheism: Pagan religions recognise a plurality of divine beings, which may or may not be considered aspects of an underlying unity (thesoft and hard polytheism distinction).
Nature-based: Some pagan religions have a concept of the divinity ofnature, which they view as a manifestation of the divine, not as the fallen creation found indualistic cosmology.
Sacred feminine: Some pagan religions recognize the female divine principle, identified asthe Goddess (as opposed to individualgoddesses) beside or in place of the male divine principle as expressed in the Abrahamic God.[112]
In modern times, Heathen and Heathenry are increasingly used to refer to those branches of modern paganism inspired by the pre-Christian religions of the Germanic, Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon peoples.[113]
InIceland, the members ofÁsatrúarfélagið account for nearly 2% of the total population,[114] therefore being nearly six thousand people. InLithuania, many people practiceRomuva, a revived version of the pre-Christian religion of that country. Lithuania was among the last areas of Europe to be Christianized.Heathenry has been established on a formal basis in Australia since at least the 1930s.[115]
^abHarper, Douglas."pagan (n.)".The Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved18 July 2013.
^Peter Brown, in Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar, eds.,Late Antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world, 1999,s.v. Pagan.
^TheOED instancesEdward Gibbon'sDecline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. II, "Chapter XXI: Persecution of Heresy, State of the Church. Part VII" (1776): "The divisions of Christianity suspended the ruin of Paganism."
^Eisenstadt, S.N. (1983). "Transcendental Visions – Other-Worldliness – and Its Transformations: Some More Comments on L. Dumont.Religion" 13:1–17, at p. 3.
^Augustine,Confessions 1.14.23; Moatii, "Translation, Migration, and Communication", p. 112.
^Petts, David (26 May 2011).Pagan and Christian: Religious Change in Early Medieval Europe. London: Bristol Classical Press. p. 31.ISBN978-0-7156-3754-8.
^A summary of the modern view is given in Robin Lane Fox,Pagans and Christians 1989, pp. 31ff.: "The modern emphasis on paganism's cult acts was also acknowledged by pagans themselves. It shaped the way they tried and tested Christians."
^E. Kessler,Dionysian Monotheism in Nea Paphos, Cyprus"two monotheistic religions, Dionysian and Christian, existed contemporaneously in Nea Paphos during the 4th century C.E. [...] the particular iconography of Hermes and Dionysos in the panel of the Epiphany of Dionysos [...] represents the culmination of a Pagan iconographic tradition in which an infant divinity is seated on the lap of another divine figure; this Pagan motif was appropriated by early Christian artists and developed into the standardized icon of the Virgin and Child. Thus the mosaic helps to substantiate the existence of Pagan monotheism."[1]
^Powell, Barry B.,Classical Myth Second ed. With new translations of ancient texts by Herbert M. Howe. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1998.
^Cite error: The named referencemarre was invoked but never defined (see thehelp page).
^Raphael Volaterranus, in his Commentaries presented toJulius II, declared that the enthusiasms of these initiates were "the first step towards doing away with the Faith" (Pastor IV 1894:44).
^"It would be a great pleasure to make the comparison with what survives to us of ancient paganism in our old books, in order to have better [grasped] their spirit." Peter N. Miller, "History of Religion Becomes Ethnology: Some Evidence from Peiresc's Africa"Journal of the History of Ideas 67.4 (2006) 675–96.[2]
^Jack Zipes,The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm, p. 846,ISBN0-393-97636-X
^Buscemi, Francesco (2019). "The Sin of Eating Meat: Fascism, Nazism and the Construction of Sacred Vegetarianism". In Gentilcore, David; Smith, Matthew (eds.).Proteins, Pathologies and Politics: Dietary Innovation and Disease from the Nineteenth Century. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 144.ISBN978-1-350-05686-2.
^Adler 2006, pp. 178–239. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAdler2006 (help)
^Adler 2006, p. ix. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAdler2006 (help)
^abAdler 2006, pp. 429–456. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAdler2006 (help)
^Giudice, Christian (2016).Occultism and Traditionalism: Arturo Reghini and the Antimodern Reaction in Early Twentieth-Century Italy.University of Gothenburg. pp. 19–20.
^Del Ponte, Renato (1990).Studi su Evola e la Tradizione (Thesis) (in Italian). Indipendente.
^"Pagans". Supreme Council of Ethnikoi Hellenes. Retrieved7 September 2007.
^Anschütz, Arlea; Hunt, Stormerne (1997)."Call us Heathens!".Journal of the Pagan Federation. Archived fromthe original on 12 July 2013. Retrieved7 September 2007.
Hua, Yih-Fen. book review to: Maria Effinger / Cornelia Logemann / Ulrich Pfisterer (eds): Götterbilder und Götzendiener in der Frühen Neuzeit. Europas Blick auf fremde Religionen. In: sehepunkte 13 (2013), Nr. 5 [15 May 2013], URL:http://www.sehepunkte.de/2013/05/21410.html. (Book review in English).
Hykolli, Atdhe; Krasniqi, Seniha (2020). "The Phenomenon of Calendar Lyrical Poetry and Its Genesis".Journal of Awareness.5 (2):77–84.doi:10.26809/joa.5.007.eISSN2149-6544.
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