Pacific Northwest English (also known, in American linguistics, asNorthwest English)[1] is a variety ofNorth American English spoken in theU.S. states ofWashington andOregon, sometimes also includingIdaho and theCanadian province ofBritish Columbia.[2] Due to the internal diversity within Pacific Northwest English, current studies remain inconclusive about whether it is best regarded as a dialect of its own, separate fromWestern American English or evenCalifornia English orCanadian English,[3] with which it shares its major phonological features.[4] The dialect region contains a highly diverse and mobile population, which is reflected in the historical and continuing development of the variety.
The linguistic traits that flourish throughout the Pacific Northwest attest to aculture that transcends boundaries. Historically, this hearkens back to the early years ofcolonial expansion by the British and Americans, when the entire region was considered a single area and people of all different mother tongues and nationalities usedChinook Jargon (along with English and French) to communicate with each other. Until theOregon Treaty of 1846, it was identified as being eitherOregon Country (by the Americans) orColumbia (by the British).[5]
Linguists immediately after World WarII tended to find few patterns unique to the Western region, as among other things, Chinook Jargon and other "slang words" (despite Chinook Jargon being an actual separate language in and of itself, individual words from it likesalt chuck,muckamuck,siwash andtyee were and still are used in Pacific Northwest English) were pushed away in favor of having a "proper, clean" dialect.[6] Several decades later, linguists began noticing emerging characteristics of Pacific Northwest English, although it remains close to thestandard American accent.
Note that "Pacific Northwest" is a US notion, cutting off at the Canada-US border. In Canada the region north of the Canada-US border is generally called "West Coast".[7]
The Pacific Northwest English vowel space. Based on TELSUR data from Labov et al. The/ɑ/ and/ɔ/ are indistinguishable in the F1/F2 means for three speakers from Vancouver, British Columbia, two speakers from Seattle, Washington, and three from Portland, Oregon.
Younger speakers of Pacific Northwest English also show features of theCanadian/California Vowel Shift, which moves front vowels through a lowering of the tongue:
/ɑ/ is backed and sometimes rounded to become[ɒ]. Most Pacific Northwest speakers have undergone thecot–caught merger. A notable exception occurs with some speakers born before roughly the end of World WarII. In addition, one study found that in Portland, Oregon, a distinction might still be made by some speakers, especially women.[8]
Throughout the Pacific Northwest,/æ/ is often backed towards[a] among younger speakers.[8][9]
There are also conditional raising processes of open front vowels. These processes are often more extreme than in Canada and the North Central United States.
Before thevelar nasal/ŋ/,/æ/ becomes/eɪ/. This change makes forminimal pairs such asrang andrain, both having the same vowel/eɪ/.
Among some speakers in Portland and southern Oregon,/æ/ is sometimes raised and diphthongized to[eə] or[ɪə] before the nasal consonants[m] and[n]. This is typical throughout the U.S.
While/æ/ raising is present in Canadian, Californian, and Pacific Northwest English, differences exist between the groups most commonly presenting these features. Pre-nasal/æ/ raising is more prominent in Washingtonian speakers than in Canadian speakers.[10]
The close central rounded vowel[ʉ] or close back unrounded vowel[ɯ] for/u/ is found in Portland and some areas of Southern Oregon, as well as in Seattle[11] and Vancouver.[12] This fronting does not happen before /l/, where the vowel is backed instead. This is common throughout the country.
These commonalities are shared with Canada and the North Central United States.
Pacific Northwestern speakers tend to realize[oʊ] as inboat and[eɪ] as inbait with almostmonophthongal values ([o] and[e]) instead of thediphthongs typical of most of the U.S.[11]
InCowlitz County, Washington, this is actually reversing, and the onset and upglide of/oʊ/ are getting further apart in apparent time.[13]
/ɛ/ and, in the northern Pacific Northwest,/æ/ tend to merge with/eɪ/ before thevoiced velar plosive/ɡ/:egg andleg are pronounced to rhyme withplague andvague, with the merged vowel being in between/ɛ/ and/eɪ/.[14] This is most frequently found in the areas north of Seattle, and is a feature shared by many northern Midwestern dialects (many settlers of Western Washington were from the Upper Midwest, often Scandinavians from Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan) and theUtah accent. In addition, sometimes the vowel inbag is raised toward/e:/.[11]
While/æ/ raising is present in Canadian, Californian, and Pacific Northwest English, differences exist between the groups most commonly presenting these features./æ/ raising is more common in younger Canadian speakers and less common in younger Washingtonian speakers.[15]
/ɛ/ and/eɪ/ may continue to be distinguished before /g/ by some speakers through length, with/ɛ/ being shorter than/eɪ/.[16]
Back vowels of the California Shift: In speakers born around the 1960s, and also among working-class young-adult females in Portland,[17] (though not in Seattle,)[11] there is a tendency to move the tongue forward in the first element of the diphthong/oʊ/. This is reminiscent of Midland, Mid-Atlantic, Southern U.S. English, as well as California English,[18] butnot Canadian English. This fronting does not appear before/m/ and/n/, for example, in the wordhome.[19]
Absence ofCanadian raising: For most speakers,/aʊ/[20] (though, in Seattle, not/aɪ/[21]) remains mostly lax before voicelessobstruents, although some variation has been reported. This likens the Pacific Northwest accent with Californian accents and contrasts it with Canadian (notably, though, most speakers from Vancouver, British Columbia, if included, do raise/aʊ/.)[21]
A recognizable though nonstandard trait israising the shorti/ɪ/ sound to an almost longee[i] sound beforeng, even when theg is dropped, such that the local pronunciation of syllable-medial or -final-ing[iŋ], even with G-dropping ([in]), takes on the same vowel quality as, but remains shorter than, therime ofbean or the traditional British pronunciation ofbeen when stressed ([iːn]).[22]
"Up-speak" or high rising terminal contours: Some speakers in the Pacific Northwest, particularly Portland, may exhibit up-speak, a rising intonation at the end of declarative sentences, also associated with certain New England English dialects (The Pacific Northwest was substantially settled by people ofYankee stock).[citation needed]
(high) muckamuck: an important person or person of authority, usually a pompous one (fromChinook Jargon, where it means'eats a lot; much food')[citation needed]
InCowlitz County, Washington, outside theMormon culture region, there are very few phonological differences between the speech of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) and non-Mormons. The only statistically significant difference found was that Mormons had a higher F2formant in/l/ following/i/,/oʊ/ and/ʊ/. This is in contrast to other studies finding some differences between Mormon and non-Mormon speech within theMormon culture region.[35]
^Ward (2003:87): "lexical studies have suggested that the Northwest in particular forms a unique dialect area (Reed 1957, Carver 1987, Wolfram and Shilling-Estes 1998). Yet the phonological studies that could in many ways reinforce what the lexical studies propose have so far been less confident in their predictions".
^Meinig, Donald W. (1995) [1968].The Great Columbia Plain. Weyerhaeuser Environmental Classic. University of Washington Press. p. 104.ISBN978-0-295-97485-9.
^Metcalf, Allan (2000)."The Far West and beyond".How We Talk: American Regional English Today. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 143.ISBN0618043624.Another pronunciation even more widely heard among older teens and adults in California and throughout the West is 'een' for -ing, as in 'I'm thinkeen of go-een campeen.'
^Raftery, Isolde (December 23, 2014).A brief history of words unique to the Pacific Northwest. KUOW. Archived fromthe original on September 21, 2015.Duff = The decaying vegetable matter, especially needles and cones, on a forest floor. Fish wheel = A wheel with nets, put in a stream to catch fish; sometimes used to help fish over a dam or waterfall.
^Champagne, Reid (February 8, 2013)."Solar neighborhood projects shine in 'sunbreak' Seattle".The Seattle Times.Archived from the original on November 21, 2015. RetrievedMay 29, 2013.[I]n this part of the world . . . sunshine is more frequently reported as 'sunbreaks'.
Stanley, Joseph A. (December 1, 2020). "6. The Absence of a Religiolect Among Latter-Day Saints in Southwest Washington".The Publication of the American Dialect Society.105 (1):95–122.doi:10.1215/00031283-8820642.S2CID229413823.
