Inmusic, anostinato (Italian:[ostiˈnaːto]; derived from the Italian word forstubborn, compare Englishobstinate) is amotif orphrase that persistentlyrepeats in the same musicalvoice, frequently in the same pitch. Well-known ostinato-based pieces includeclassical compositions such asRavel'sBoléro and theCarol of the Bells, andpopular songs such asJohn Lennon’s “Mind Games”(1973),Donna Summer andGiorgio Moroder's "I Feel Love" (1977),Henry Mancini's theme fromPeter Gunn (1959),The Who's "Baba O'Riley" (1971),The Verve's "Bitter Sweet Symphony" (1997), andFlo Rida's "Low" (2007).[1][2]
Bothostinatos andostinati are accepted English plural forms, the latter reflecting the word's Italianetymology.
The repeating idea may be arhythmic pattern, part of a tune, or a completemelody in itself.[3] Strictly speaking, ostinati should have exact repetition, but in common usage, the term covers repetition withvariation anddevelopment, such as the alteration of an ostinato line to fit changingharmonies orkeys.
If the cadence may be regarded as the cradle of tonality, the ostinato patterns can be considered the playground in which it grew strong and self-confident.
Within the context of European classical and film music, Claudia Gorbman defines anostinato as a repeated melodic or rhythmic figure that propels scenes that lack dynamic visual action.[5]
Ostinati play an important part inimprovised music (rock and jazz), in which they are often referred to asriffs orvamps. A "favorite technique of contemporary jazz writers", ostinati are often used inmodal andLatin jazz and traditionalAfrican music includingGnawa music.[6]
The termostinato essentially has the same meaning as the medieval Latin wordpes, the wordground as applied to classical music, and the wordriff in contemporary popular music.
Within the domain of European classical music traditions,Ostinati are used in 20th-century music to stabilize groups of pitches, as in Stravinsky'sThe Rite of SpringIntroduction andAugurs of Spring.[3] A famous type of ostinato, called theRossini crescendo, owes its name to acrescendo that underlies a persistent musical pattern, which usually culminates in a solo vocal cadenza. This style was emulated by otherbel canto composers, especiallyVincenzo Bellini; and later byWagner (in pure instrumental terms, discarding the closing vocal cadenza).
Applicable inhomophonic andcontrapuntaltextures, they are "repetitive rhythmic-harmonic schemes", more familiar as accompanimental melodies, or purely rhythmic.[7] The technique's appeal to composers from Debussy toavant-garde composers until at least the 1970s "... lies in part in the need for unity created by the virtual abandonment of functionalchord progressions to shape phrases and define tonality".[7] Similarly, inmodal music, "... relentless, repetitive character help to establish and confirm the modal center".[6] Their popularity may also be justified by their ease as well as range of use, though, "... ostinato must be employed judiciously, as its overuse can quickly lead to monotony".[6]
Ostinato patterns have been present in European music from the Middle Ages onwards. In the famous Englishcanon "Sumer Is Icumen In", the main vocal lines are underpinned by an ostinato pattern, known as apes:
Later in the medieval era,Guillaume Dufay's 15th-century chansonResvelons Nous features a similarly constructed ostinato pattern, but this time 5 bars long. Over this, the main melodic line moves freely, varying the phrase-lengths, while being "to some extent predetermined by the repeating pattern of the canon in the lower two voices."[8]
Ground bass orbasso ostinato (obstinate bass) is a type ofvariation form in which abass line, orharmonic pattern (seeChaconne; also common inElizabethan England asGrounde) is repeated as the basis of a piece underneath variations.[9]Aaron Copland[10] describes basso ostinato as "... the easiest to recognize" of the variation forms wherein, "... a long phrase—either an accompanimental figure or an actual melody—is repeated over and over again in the bass part, while the upper parts proceed normally [with variation]". However, he cautions, "it might more properly be termed a musical device than a musical form."
One striking ostinato instrumental piece of the late Renaissance period is "The Bells", a piece forvirginals byWilliam Byrd. Here the ostinato (or 'ground') consists of just two notes:
In Italy, during the seventeenth century,Claudio Monteverdi composed many pieces using ostinato patterns in his operas and sacred works. One of these was his 1650 version of "Laetatus sum", an imposing setting of Psalm 122 that pits a four-note "ostinato of unquenchable energy."[11] against both voices and instruments:
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Later in the same century,Henry Purcell became famous for his skilful deployment of ground bass patterns. His most famous ostinato is the descendingchromatic ground bass that underpins the aria "When I am laid in earth" ("Dido's Lament") at the end of his operaDido and Aeneas:
While the use of a descending chromatic scale to express pathos was fairly common at the end of the seventeenth century,Richard Taruskin pointed out that Purcell shows a fresh approach to this musicaltrope: "Altogether unconventional and characteristic, however, is the interpolation of an additional cadential measure into the stereotyped ground, increasing its length from a routine four to a haunting five bars, against which the vocal line, with its despondent refrain ("Remember me!"), is deployed with marked asymmetry. That, in addition to Purcell's distinctively dissonant, suspension-saturated harmony, enhanced by additional chromatic descents during the final ritornello and by many deceptive cadences, makes this little aria an unforgettably poignant embodiment ofheartache."[12] See also:Lament bass.However, this is not the only ostinato pattern that Purcell uses in the opera. Dido's opening aria "Ah, Belinda" is a further demonstration of Purcell's technical mastery: the phrases of the vocal line do not always coincide with the four-bar ground:
"Purcell's compositions over a ground vary in their working out, and the repetition never becomes a restriction."[13] Purcell's instrumental music also featured ground patterns. A particularly fine and complex example is his Fantasia upon a Ground for three violins and continuo:
The intervals in the above pattern are found in many works of the Baroque Period.Pachelbel's Canon also uses a similar sequence of notes in the bass part:
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Two pieces byJ.S.Bach are particularly striking for their use of an ostinato bass: theCrucifixus from hisMass in B minor and thePassacaglia in C minor for organ, which has a ground rich in melodic intervals:
The first variation that Bach builds over this ostinato consists of a gentlysyncopated motif in the upper voices:
This characteristic rhythmic pattern continues in the second variation, but with some engaging harmonic subtleties, especially in the second bar, where an unexpected chord creates a passing implication of a related key:
In common with other Passacaglias of the era, the ostinato is not simply confined to the bass, but rises to the uppermost part later in the piece:
A performance of the entire piece can be heardhere.
Ostinatos feature in many works of the late 18th and early 19th centuries.Mozart uses an ostinato phrase throughout the big scene that ends Act 2 of theMarriage of Figaro, to convey a sense of suspense as the jealous Count Almaviva tries in vain to incriminate the Countess, his wife, and Figaro, his butler, for plotting behind his back. A famous type of ostinato, called theRossini crescendo, owes its name to a crescendo that underlies a persistent musical pattern, which usually culminates in a solo vocal cadenza.
In the energetic Scherzo ofBeethoven’s lateC sharp minor Quartet, Op. 131, there is a harmonically static passage, with "the repetitiveness of a nursery rhyme"[14] that consists of an ostinato shared between viola and cello supporting a melody in octaves in the first and second violins:
Beethoven reverses this relationship a few bars later with the melody in the viola and cello and the ostinato shared between the violins:
Both the first and third acts ofWagner's final operaParsifal feature a passage accompanying a scene where a band of Knights solemnly processes from the depths of forest to the hall of the Grail. The "Transformation music" that supports this change of scene is dominated by the iterated tolling of four bells:
Brahms used ostinato patterns in both the finale of hisFourth Symphony and in the closing section of hisVariations on a Theme by Haydn:
Debussy featured an ostinato pattern throughout his Piano Prelude "Des pas sur la neige". Here, the ostinato pattern stays in the middle register of the piano – it is never used as a bass. "Remark that the footfall ostinato remains nearly throughout on the same notes, at the same pitch level... this piece is an appeal to the basic loneliness of all human beings, oft-forgotten perhaps, but, like the ostinato, forming a basic undercurrent of our history."[15]
Of all the major classical composers of the 20th century,Stravinsky is possibly the one most associated with the practice of ostinato. In conversation with the composer, his friend and colleagueRobert Craft remarked "Your music always has an element of repetition, of ostinato. What is the function of ostinato?" Stravinsky replied; "It is static – that is, anti-development; and sometimes we need a contradiction to development."[16] Stravinsky was particularly skilled at using ostinatos to confound rather than confirm rhythmic expectations. In the first of hisThree Pieces for String Quartet, Stravinsky sets up three repeated patterns, which overlap one another and nevercoincide. "Here a rigid pattern of (3+2+2/4) bars is laid over a strictly recurring 23-beat tune (the bars being marked by a cello ostinato), so that their changing relationship is governed primarily by the pre-compositional scheme."[17] "The rhythmical current running through the music is what binds together these curious mosaic-like pieces."[18]
A subtler metrical conflict can be found in the final section of Stravinsky'sSymphony of Psalms. The choir sing a melody in triple time, while the bass instruments in the orchestra play a 4-beat ostinato against this. "This is built up over an ostinato bass (harp, two pianos and timpani) moving in fourths like apendulum."[19]
Many instrumentssouth of the Sahara Desert play ostinato melodies.[clarification needed] These includelamellophones such as thembira, as well asxylophones like thebalafon, thebikutsi, and thegyil. Ostinato figures are also played on string instruments such as thekora,gankoqui bell ensembles, and pitched drums ensembles. Often, African ostinatos containoffbeats orcross-beats, that contradict the metric structure.[20] Other African ostinatos generate complete cross-rhythms by sounding both the mainbeats and cross-beats. In the following example, a gyil sounds the three-against-two cross-rhythm (hemiola). The left hand (lower notes) sounds the two main beats, while the right hand (upper notes) sounds the three cross-beats.[21]
Popular dance bands in West Africa and theCongo region feature ostinato-playing guitars. The African guitar parts are drawn from a variety of sources, including the indigenousmbira, as well as foreign influences such asJames Brown-typefunk riffs. However, the foreign influences are interpreted through a distinctly African ostinato sensibility. African guitar styles began with Congolese bands doing Cubancover songs. The Cubanguajeo had a both familiar and exotic quality to the African musicians. Gradually, various regional guitar styles emerged, as indigenous influences became increasingly dominant within theseAfricanized guajeos.[22]
As Moore states, "One could say that I – IV – V – IV [chord progressions] is to African music what the 12-bar blues is to North American music."[23] Such progressions seem superficially to follow the conventions of Western music theory. However, performers of African popular music do not perceive these progressions in the same way. Harmonic progressions which move from the tonic to the subdominant (as they are known in European music) have been used inTraditional sub-Saharan African harmony for hundreds of years. Their elaborations follow all the conventions of traditional African harmonic principles. Gehard Kubik concludes:
The harmonic cycle of C–F–G–F [I–IV–V–IV] prominent in Congo/Zaire popular music simply cannot be defined as a progression from tonic to subdominant to dominant and back to subdominant (on which it ends) because in the performer's appreciation they are of equal status, and not in any hierarchical order as in Western music—(Kubik 1999).[24]
A guajeo is a typical Cuban ostinato melody, most often consisting of arpeggiated chords in syncopated patterns. The guajeo is a hybrid of the African and European ostinato. The guajeo was first played as accompaniment on the tres in the folkloricchangüí andson.[25] The termguajeo is often used to mean specific ostinato patterns played by a tres, piano, an instrument of the violin family, or saxophones.[26] The guajeo is a fundamental component of modern-daysalsa, andLatin jazz. The following example shows a basic guajeo pattern.
The guajeo is a seamless Afro-Euro ostinato hybrid, which has had a major influence upon jazz, R&B,rock 'n' roll and popular music in general.The Beatles' "I Feel Fine" guitar riff is guajeo-like.
In various popular music styles,riff refers to a brief, relaxed phrase repeated over changing melodies. It may serve as a refrain ormelodic figure, often played by therhythm section instruments or solo instruments that form the basis oraccompaniment of a musical composition.[27] Though they are most often found inrock music,heavy metal music,Latin, funk andjazz, classical music is also sometimes based on a simple riff, such asRavel'sBoléro. Riffs can be as simple as a tenor saxophone honking a simple, catchy rhythmic figure, or as complex as the riff-based variations in theheadarrangements played by theCount Basie Orchestra.
David Brackett (1999) defines riffs as "short melodic phrases", whileRichard Middleton (1999)[28] defines them as "short rhythmic, melodic, or harmonic figures repeated to form a structural framework". Rikky Rooksby[29] states: "A riff is a short, repeated, memorable musical phrase, often pitched low on the guitar, which focuses much of the energy and excitement of a rock song."
In jazz andR&B, riffs are often used as the starting point for longer compositions. The riff fromCharlie Parker'sbebop number "Now's the Time" (1945) re-emerged four years later as the R&B dance hit "The Hucklebuck". The verse of "The Hucklebuck"—another riff—was "borrowed" from the Artie Matthews composition "Weary Blues". Glenn Miller's "In the Mood" had an earlier life asWingy Manone's "Tar Paper Stomp". All these songs usetwelve bar blues riffs, and most of these riffs probably precede the examples given.[30]
Neither of the terms 'riff' or 'lick' are used inclassical music. Instead, individual musical phrases used as the basis of classical music pieces are called ostinatos or simply phrases. Contemporary jazz writers also use riff- or lick-like ostinatos inmodal music.Latin jazz often uses guajeo-based riffs.
In music, avamp is arepeatingmusical figure,section,[31] oraccompaniment. Vamps are usually harmonically sparse:[31] A vamp may consist of a single chord or a sequence of chords played in a repeated rhythm. The term frequently appeared in the instruction 'Vamp till ready' on sheet music for popular songs in the 1930s and 1940s, indicating the accompanist should repeat the musical phrase until the vocalist was ready. Vamps are generally symmetrical, self-contained, and open to variation.[31] They are used inblues,jazz,gospel,soul, andmusical theater.[32] Vamps are also found inrock,funk,reggae,R&B,pop, andcountry.[31] The equivalent inclassical music is an ostinato, inhip hop andelectronic music theloop, and in rock music theriff.[31]
The slang termvamp comes from the Middle English wordvampe (sock), from Old Frenchavanpie, equivalent to Modern Frenchavant-pied, literallybefore-foot.[31][33]
Many vamp-oriented songwriters begin the creative process by attempting to evoke a mood or feeling while riffing freely on an instrument or scat singing. Many well known artists primarily build songs with a vamp/riff/ostinato based approach—includingJohn Lee Hooker ("Boogie Chillen", "House Rent Boogie"),Bo Diddley ("Hey Bo Diddley", "Who Do You Love?"),Jimmy Page ("Ramble On", "Bron Yr Aur"),Nine Inch Nails ("Closer"), andBeck ("Loser").
Classic examples of vamps in jazz include "A Night in Tunisia", "Take Five", "A Love Supreme", "Maiden Voyage", and "Cantaloupe Island".[6] Rock examples include the long jam at the ends of "Loose Change" byNeil Young and Crazy Horse and "Sooner or Later" byKing's X.
Injazz,fusion, and related genres, a background vamp provides a performer with a harmonic framework supporting improvisation. InLatin jazz guajeos fulfill the role of piano vamp. A vamp at the beginning of a jazz tune may act as a springboard to the main tune; a vamp at the end of a song is often called atag.
"Take Five" begins with a repeated, syncopated figure in5
4 time, which pianistDave Brubeck plays throughout the song (except forJoe Morello's drum solo and a variation on the chords in the middle section).
The music fromMiles Davis's modal period (c.1958–1963) was based on improvising songs with a small number of chords. Thejazz standard "So What" uses a vamp in the two-note "Sooooo what?" figure, regularly played by the piano and the trumpet throughout. Jazz scholar Barry Kernfeld calls this musicvamp music.[full citation needed]
Examples include the outros toGeorge Benson's "Body Talk" and "Plum", and the solo changes to "Breezin'".[31] The following songs are dominated by vamps:John Coltrane,Kenny Burrell, andGrant Green's versions of "My Favorite Things",Herbie Hancock's "Watermelon Man" and "Chameleon",Wes Montgomery's "Bumpin' on Sunset", andLarry Carlton's "Room 335".[31]
The Afro-Cuban vamp style known as guajeo is used in thebebop/Latin jazz standard "A Night in Tunisia". Depending upon the musician, a repeating figure in "A Night in Tunisia" could be called anostinato,guajeo,riff, orvamp. The Cuban-jazz hybrid spans the disciplines that encompass all these terms.
Ingospel andsoul music, the band often vamps on a simple ostinatogroove at the end of a song, usually over a single chord. In soul music, the end of recorded songs often contains a display of vocal effects—such as rapid scales, arpeggios, and improvisedpassages. For recordings, sound engineers gradually fade out the vamp section at the end of a song, to transition to the next track on the album.Salsoul singers such asLoleatta Holloway have become notable for their vocal improvisations at the end of songs, and they are sampled and used in other songs.Andrae Crouch extended the use of vamps in gospel, introducing chain vamps (one vamp after the other, each successive vamp drawn from the first).[34]
1970s-era funk music often takes a short one or two bar musical figure based on a single chord one would consider an introduction vamp in jazz or soul music, and then uses this vamp as the basis of the entire song ("Funky Drummer" by James Brown, for example). Jazz, blues, and rock are almost always based on chord progressions (a sequence of changing chords), and they use the changing harmony to build tension and sustain listener interest. Unlike these music genres, funk is based on the rhythmic groove of the percussion, rhythm section instruments, and a deep electric bass line, usually all over a single chord. "In funk, harmony is often second to the 'lock,' the linking of contrapuntal parts that are played on guitar, bass, and drums in the repeating vamp."[31]
Examples includeStevie Wonder's vamp-based "Superstition"[31] andLittle Johnny Taylor's "Part Time Love", which features an extended improvisation over a two-chord vamp.[34]
Inmusical theater, a vamp, or intro, is the fewbars, one to eight, of music without lyrics that begin a printed copy of a song.[35] The orchestra may repeat the vamp or other accompaniment during dialogue or stage business, as accompaniment for onstage transitions of indeterminate length. The score provides a one or two bar vamp figure, and indicates, "Vamp till cue", by the conductor. The vamp gives the onstage singers time to prepare for the song or the next verse, without requiring the music to pause. Once the vamp section is over, the music continues to the next section.
The vamp may be written by the composer of the song, a copyist employed by the publisher, or the arranger for the vocalist.[35] The vamp serves three main purposes: it provides the key, establishes the tempo, and provides emotional context.[36] The vamp may be as short as abell tone,sting (a harmonized bell tone with stress on the starting note), or measures long.[36] Therideout is the transitional music that begins on the downbeat of the last word of the song and is usually two to four bars long, though it may be as short as a sting or as long as a Roxy Rideout.[37]
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InIndian classical music, duringTabla orPakhawaj solo performances andKathak dance accompaniments, a conceptually similar melodic pattern known as theLehara (sometimes spelled Lehra)[38] or Nagma is played repeatedly throughout the performance. This melodic pattern is set to the number of beats in a rhythmic cycle (Tala or Taal) being performed and may be based on one or a blend of multipleRagas.
The basic idea of the lehara is to provide a steady melodious framework and keep the time-cycle for rhythmic improvisations. It serves as an auditory workbench not only for the soloist but also for the audience to appreciate the ingenuity of the improvisations and thus the merits of the overall performance. In Indian Classical Music, the concept of 'sam' (pronounced as 'sum') carries paramount importance. The sam is the target unison beat (and almost always the first beat) of any rhythmic cycle. The second most important beat is the Khali, which is a complement of the sam. Besides these two prominent beats, there are other beats of emphasis in any given taal, which signify 'khand's (divisions) of the taal. E.g. 'Roopak' or 'Rupak' taal, a 7-beat rhythmic cycle, is divided 3–2–2, further implying that the 1st, 4th, and 6th beats are the prominent beats in that taal. Therefore, it is customary, but not essential, to align the lehara according to the divisions of the Taal. It is done with a view to emphasize those beats that mark the divisions of the Taal.
The lehara can be played on a variety of instruments, including thesarangi,harmonium,sitar,sarod,flute and others. The playing of the lehara is relatively free from the numerous rules and constraints ofRaga Sangeet, which are upheld and honoured in the tradition of Indian Classical Music. The lehara may be interspersed with short and occasional improvisations built around the basic melody. It is also permissible to switch between two or more disparate melodies during the course of the performance. It is essential that the lehara be played with the highest precision inLaya (Tempo) andSwara control, which requires years of specialist training (Taalim) and practice (Riyaaz). It is considered a hallmark of excellence to play lehara alongside a recognised Tabla or Pakhawaj virtuoso as it is a difficult task to keep a steady pulse while the percussionist is improvising or playing difficult compositions in counterpoint. While there may be scores of individually talented instrumentalists, there are very few who are capable of playing the lehra for a Tabla / Pakhawaj solo performance.[39]
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