| Owambo | |
|---|---|
| Oshiwambo | |
| Native to | Angola,Namibia |
| Ethnicity | Owambo |
Native speakers | (1,441,000 cited 1990 mm)[1] |
Standard forms | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-1 | kj,ng |
| ISO 639-2 | kua,ndo |
| ISO 639-3 | Variously:kua – Kwanyamando – Ndongakwm – Kwambilnb – Mbalanhu (Central Wambo)nne – Ngandjera |
| Glottolog | ndon1253 |
R.20 (R.21–24,211–218,241–242)[2] | |
| Ambo | |
|---|---|
| Person | Omuwambo |
| People | Aawambo, Ovawambo |
| Language | Oshiwambo |
| Country | Owambo, Ouwambo |
TheOvambo (English:/ɒˈvæmboʊ/) language is adialect cluster spoken by theOvambo people in southernAngola and northernNamibia, of which the written standards areKwanyama andNdonga.
The native name for the language isOshiwambo (also writtenOshivambo), which is also used specifically for the Kwanyama and Ndonga dialects. It is the largest spoken local language in Namibia,[3] particularly by theOvambo people.
The language is closely related to that of theHerero andHimba, theHerero language (Otjiherero). An obvious sign of proximity is the prefix used for language and dialect names,Proto-Bantu*ki- (class 7, as in the name of theSwahili language,Kiswahili), which in Herero has evolved toOtji- and in Ovambo further toOshi-.
After Namibia's independence in 1990, the area previously known asOvamboland was divided into theOhangwena,Omusati,Oshana andOshikoto Regions. The population, estimated at between 700,000 and 750,000, fluctuates remarkably. This is because of the indiscriminate border drawn up by thePortuguese andGerman Empires during colonial rule, which cut through the Oukwanyama tribal area, placing some inAngola and others in Namibia. This results in regular cross-border movement.
There are approximately one million Oshiwambo speakers in Namibia and Angola.[4] Though it is mainly spoken in the northern regions of Namibia, it is widely spoken across the rest of the country by populations of migrant workers from Ovamboland. These workers comprise a large part of the population in many towns, particularly in the south, where there are jobs in the mining industry. For example, inLüderitz, an 18-hour drive from Ovamboland, at least 50% of the population speaks Oshiwambo.
The namesAmbo andOvambo appear to have originally been exonyms. Despite extensive speculation, their origin remains unknown.
The country was calledOvamboland andAmboland by the German colonial authorities. In English,Ovamboland predominates, thoughAmbo country is sometimes used, and in English publications fromNamibia,Owamboland, Wamboland, andOwambo are seen. The endemic forms areOwambo kingdoms are Ndonga, Kwanyama and Kwambi
The people are generally called theOvambo orAmbo in English. The endemic forms areAawambo (Ndonga) andOvawambo (Kwanyama); the singular in both cases isOmuwambo. The language is generally calledOvambo, Ambo, orOshiwambo in English; the endonym in both standards isOshiwambo.[5]
There are eight dialects, including the two written standards Kwanyama and Ndonga. Oshiwambo culture is more dominant in the northern part of the country.
The following table contains the names, areas, dialect names and the locations of the Ovambo dialects according to T. E. Tirronen'sNdonga-English Dictionary. The table also contains information concerning whichnoun class of Proto-Bantu the words belong to.[6]
| Area | Tribe | Dialect | Location |
|---|---|---|---|
| Classes 9 (*ny > on-),11 (uu-/ou-) | Class 2 (*wa-, a-) | Class 7 (*ki > oshi-) | |
| Ondonga | Aa-ndonga | Ndonga dialect | SouthernOvamboland |
| Uu-kwambi | Aa-kwambi | Kwambi dialect | Central Ovamboland |
| O-ngandjera | Aa-ngandjera | Otshi-ngandjera | Central Ovamboland |
| Uu-kwaluudhi | Aa-kwaluudhi | Otshi-kwaluudhi | Western Ovamboland |
| O-mbalantu | Aa-mbalantu | Oshi-mbalantu | Western Ovamboland |
| Uu-kolonkadhi | Aa-kolonkadhi | Otshi-kolonkadhi | Western Ovamboland |
| Oukwanyama | Ova-kwanyama | Kwanyama dialect | Northern and Eastern Ovamboland,Angola |
| Eunda | Unda | Oshi-unda | northwest, Epalela vicinity |
Maho (2009) lists the following as distinct languages in the Ovambo cluster:[2]
Omupangi umwe okwa li a nyeka nge embo olo, ndele ta lesha oshipalanyole shalo, nokupula nge ta kondjifa ngeenge ohandi ka ninga umwe womEendombwedi daJehova ile hasho.
Translation
A nurse grabbed the book from me, looked at the cover, and demanded to know whether I was going to become one of Jehovah's Witnesses.