This article is about the group of viruses. For the disease involved in the COVID-19 pandemic, seeCOVID-19. For the virus that causes this disease, seeSARS-CoV-2.
The name "coronavirus" is derived from Latincorona, meaning "crown" or "wreath", itself a borrowing fromGreekκορώνηkorṓnē, "garland, wreath".[8][9] The name was coined byJune Almeida andDavid Tyrrell who first observed and studied human coronaviruses.[10] The word was first used in print in 1968 by an informal group of virologists in the journalNature to designate the new family of viruses.[7] The name refers to the characteristic appearance ofvirions (the infective form of the virus) byelectron microscopy, which have a fringe of large, bulbous surface projections creating an image reminiscent of thesolar corona or halo.[7][10] Thismorphology is created by the viral spikepeplomers, which areproteins on the surface of the virus.[11]
The scientific nameCoronavirus was accepted as a genus name by the International Committee for the Nomenclature of Viruses (later renamedInternational Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses) in 1971.[12] As the number of new species increased, the genus was split into four genera, namelyAlphacoronavirus,Betacoronavirus,Deltacoronavirus, andGammacoronavirus in 2009.[13] The common name coronavirus is used to refer to any member of the subfamilyOrthocoronavirinae.[4] As of 2020, 45 species are officially recognised.[14]
A number of 2021 studies found that themost recent common ancestor (MRCA) for Coronaviruses may have emerged around 21,000–25,000 years ago inEast Asia, during the earliest uncovered Coronavirus outbreak. Researchers found that 42 Coronavirus-specific virus-interacting proteins (CoV-VIPs) in East Asian populations were most likely selected for during this ancient outbreak, with the viruses driving an adaptive response in the ancestors of East Asians.[15][16] The four known genera of Coronaviruses,Alphacoronavirus,Betacoronavirus,Gammacoronavirus, andDeltacoronavirus split up around 2,400 to 3,300 years ago into bat and avian coronavirus ancestors. Bat coronaviruses gave rise to the species ofAlphacoronavirus andBetacoronavirus that infect mammals, while avian coronavirus produced those ofGammacoronavirus andDeltacoronavirus that infect birds.[17]
The earliest reports of a coronavirus infection in animals occurred in the late 1920s, when an acute respiratory infection of domesticated chickens emerged in North America.[18] Arthur Schalk and M.C. Hawn in 1931 made the first detailed report which described a newrespiratory infection of chickens inNorth Dakota. The infection of new-born chicks was characterized by gasping and listlessness with high mortality rates of 40–90%.[19] Leland David Bushnell and Carl Alfred Brandly isolated the virus that caused the infection in 1933.[20] The virus was then known asinfectious bronchitis virus (IBV). Charles D. Hudson and Fred Robert Beaudette cultivated the virus for the first time in 1937.[21] The specimen came to be known as the Beaudette strain. In the late 1940s, two more animal coronaviruses, JHM that causes brain disease (murine encephalitis) andmouse hepatitis virus (MHV) that causes hepatitis in mice were discovered.[22] It was not realized at the time that these three different viruses were related.[23][12]
Human coronaviruses were discovered in the 1960s[24][25] using two different methods in the United Kingdom and the United States.[26] E.C. Kendall, Malcolm Bynoe, andDavid Tyrrell working at theCommon Cold Unit of theBritish Medical Research Council collected a uniquecommon cold virus designated B814 in 1961.[27][28][29] The virus could not be cultivated using standard techniques which had successfully cultivatedrhinoviruses,adenoviruses and other known common cold viruses. In 1965, Tyrrell and Bynoe successfully cultivated the novel virus byserially passing it throughorgan culture ofhuman embryonictrachea.[30] The new cultivating method was introduced to the lab by Bertil Hoorn.[31] The isolated virus when intranasallyinoculated into volunteers caused a cold and was inactivated byether which indicated it had alipid envelope.[27][32] Dorothy Hamre and John Procknow at theUniversity of Chicago isolated a novel cold from medical students in 1962. They isolated and grew the virus in kidneytissue culture, designating it 229E. The novel virus caused a cold in volunteers and, like B814, was inactivated by ether.[33][34]
Transmission electron micrograph of organ cultured coronavirus OC43
Scottish virologistJune Almeida atSt Thomas' Hospital in London, collaborating with Tyrrell, compared the structures of IBV, B814 and 229E in 1967.[35][36] Usingelectron microscopy the three viruses were shown to be morphologically related by their general shape and distinctive club-likespikes.[37] A research group at theNational Institute of Health the same year was able to isolate another member of this new group of viruses using organ culture and named one of the samples OC43 (OC for organ culture).[38] Like B814, 229E, and IBV, the novel cold virus OC43 had distinctive club-like spikes when observed with the electron microscope.[39][40]
The IBV-like novel cold viruses were soon shown to be also morphologically related to the mouse hepatitis virus.[22] This new group of viruses were named coronaviruses after their distinctive morphological appearance.[7]Human coronavirus 229E andhuman coronavirus OC43 continued to be studied in subsequent decades.[41][42] The coronavirus strain B814 was lost. It is not known which present human coronavirus it was.[43] Other human coronaviruses have since been identified, includingSARS-CoV in 2003,HCoV NL63 in 2003,HCoV HKU1 in 2004,MERS-CoV in 2013, andSARS-CoV-2 in 2019.[44] There have also been a large number of animal coronaviruses identified since the 1960s.[45]
Virology
Structure
Structure of a coronavirus
Coronaviruses are large, roughly spherical particles with unique surface projections.[46] Their size is highly variable with average diameters of 80 to 120 nm. Extreme sizes are known from 50 to 200 nm in diameter.[47] The totalmolecular mass is on average 40,000 kDa. They are enclosed in an envelope embedded with a number of protein molecules.[48] The lipid bilayer envelope, membrane proteins, and nucleocapsid protect the virus when it is outside the host cell.[49]
Theviral envelope is made up of alipid bilayer in which themembrane (M),envelope (E) andspike (S)structural proteins are anchored.[50] The molar ratio of E:S:M in the lipid bilayer is approximately 1:20:300.[51] The E and M protein are the structural proteins that combined with the lipid bilayer to shape the viral envelope and maintain its size.[52] S proteins are needed for interaction with the host cells. Buthuman coronavirus NL63 is peculiar in that its M protein has the binding site for the host cell, and not its S protein.[53] The diameter of the envelope is 85 nm. The envelope of the virus in electron micrographs appears as a distinct pair of electron-dense shells (shells that are relatively opaque to the electron beam used to scan the virus particle).[54][52]
TheM protein is the main structural protein of the envelope that provides the overall shape and is atype III membrane protein. It consists of 218 to 263amino acid residues and forms a layer 7.8 nm thick.[48] It has three domains, a shortN-terminalectodomain, a triple-spanningtransmembrane domain, and aC-terminalendodomain. The C-terminal domain forms a matrix-like lattice that adds to the extra-thickness of the envelope. Different species can have eitherN- orO-linkedglycans in their protein amino-terminal domain. The M protein is crucial during the assembly,budding, envelope formation, and pathogenesis stages of the virus lifecycle.[55]
TheE proteins are minor structural proteins and highly variable in different species.[47] There are only about 20 copies of the E protein molecule in a coronavirus particle.[51] They are 8.4 to 12 kDa in size and are composed of 76 to 109 amino acids.[47] They are integral proteins (i.e. embedded in the lipid layer) and have two domains namely a transmembrane domain and an extramembrane C-terminal domain. They are almost fully α-helical, with a single α-helical transmembrane domain, and form pentameric (five-molecular)ion channels in the lipid bilayer. They are responsible for virion assembly,intracellular trafficking and morphogenesis (budding).[48]
Diagram of the genome and functional domains of the Sprotein for SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV
The spikes are the most distinguishing feature of coronaviruses and are responsible for the corona- or halo-like surface. On average a coronavirus particle has 74 surface spikes.[56] Eachspike is about 20 nm long and is composed of atrimer of the Sprotein. The S protein is in turn composed of an S1 and S2subunit. The homotrimeric Sprotein is aclass I fusion protein which mediates thereceptor binding andmembrane fusion between the virus and host cell. The S1 subunit forms the head of the spike and has the receptor-binding domain (RBD). The S2 subunit forms the stem which anchors the spike in the viral envelope and on protease activation enables fusion. The two subunits remain noncovalently linked as they are exposed on the viral surface until they attach to the host cell membrane.[48] In a functionally active state, three S1 are attached to two S2 subunits. The subunit complex is split into individual subunits when the virus binds and fuses with the host cell under the action ofproteases such ascathepsin family andtransmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) of the host cell.[57]
After binding of the ACE2 receptor, SARS-CoV spike is activated and cleaved at the S1/S2 level.
S1 proteins are the most critical components in terms of infection. They are also the most variable components as they are responsible for host cell specificity. They possess two major domains named N-terminal domain (S1-NTD) and C-terminal domain (S1-CTD), both of which serve as the receptor-binding domains. The NTDs recognize and bind sugars on the surface of the host cell. An exception is theMHV NTD that binds to a protein receptorcarcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 1 (CEACAM1). S1-CTDs are responsible for recognizing different protein receptors such asangiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2),aminopeptidase N (APN), anddipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4).[48]
A subset of coronaviruses (specifically the members ofbetacoronavirussubgroup A) also has a shorter spike-like surface protein calledhemagglutinin esterase (HE).[45] The HE proteins occur as homodimers composed of about 400 amino acid residues and are 40 to 50 kDa in size. They appear as tiny surface projections of 5 to 7 nm long embedded in between the spikes. They help in the attachment to and detachment from the host cell.[58]
Inside the envelope, there is thenucleocapsid, which is formed from multiple copies of the nucleocapsid (N) protein, which are bound to the positive-sense single-strandedRNA genome in a continuousbeads-on-a-string type conformation.[52][59]N protein is aphosphoprotein of 43 to 50 kDa in size, and is divided into three conserved domains. The majority of the protein is made up of domains 1 and 2, which are typically rich inarginines andlysines. Domain 3 has a short carboxy terminal end and has a net negative charge due to excess of acidic over basic amino acid residues.[47]
The genome organization for a coronavirus is5′-leader-UTR-replicase (ORF1ab)-spike (S)-envelope (E)-membrane (M)-nucleocapsid (N)-3′UTR-poly (A) tail. Theopen reading frames 1a and 1b, which occupy the first two-thirds of the genome, encode the replicase polyprotein (pp1ab). The replicase polyprotein self cleaves to form 16nonstructural proteins (nsp1–nsp16).[52]
The later reading frames encode the four major structural proteins:spike,envelope,membrane, andnucleocapsid.[60] Interspersed between these reading frames are the reading frames for the accessory proteins. The number of accessory proteins and their function is unique depending on the specific coronavirus.[52]
Replication cycle
Cell entry
The life cycle of a coronavirus
Infection begins when the viral spike protein attaches to its complementary host cell receptor. After attachment, aprotease of the host cellcleaves and activates the receptor-attached spike protein. Depending on the host cell protease available, cleavage and activation allows thevirus to enter the host cell byendocytosis or direct fusion of the viral envelope with thehost membrane.[61]
Coronaviruses can enter cells by either fusing to their lipid envelope with the cell membrane on the cell surface or by internalization via endocytosis.[62]
Insertion of a cleavage site can boost viral entry in different cell types by enabling promiscuous cleavage of the spike when contacting different proteases.[63]
Genome translation
On entry into thehost cell, the virus particle isuncoated, and itsgenome enters thecell cytoplasm. The coronavirus RNA genome has a 5′ methylated cap and a 3′ polyadenylated tail, which allows it to act like amessenger RNA and be directly translated by the host cell'sribosomes. The host ribosomes translate the initial overlappingopen reading framesORF1a andORF1b of the virus genome into two large overlapping polyproteins, pp1a and pp1ab.[52]
The larger polyprotein pp1ab is a result of a-1 ribosomal frameshift caused by aslippery sequence (UUUAAAC) and a downstreamRNA pseudoknot at the end of open reading frame ORF1a.[64] The ribosomal frameshift allows for the continuous translation of ORF1a followed by ORF1b.[52]
The polyproteins have their ownproteases,PLpro (nsp3) and3CLpro (nsp5), which cleave the polyproteins at different specific sites. The cleavage of polyprotein pp1ab yields 16 nonstructural proteins (nsp1 to nsp16). Product proteins include various replication proteins such asRNA-dependent RNA polymerase (nsp12),RNA helicase (nsp13), andexoribonuclease (nsp14).[52]
Replicase-transcriptase
Replicase-transcriptase complex
A number of the nonstructural proteins coalesce to form amulti-protein replicase-transcriptase complex (RTC). The main replicase-transcriptase protein is theRNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). It is directly involved in thereplication andtranscription of RNA from an RNA strand. The other nonstructural proteins in the complex assist in the replication and transcription process. Theexoribonuclease nonstructural protein, for instance, provides extra fidelity to replication by providing aproofreading function which the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase lacks.[65]
Replication – One of the main functions of the complex is to replicate the viral genome. RdRp directly mediates thesynthesis of negative-sense genomic RNA from the positive-sense genomic RNA. This is followed by the replication of positive-sense genomic RNA from the negative-sense genomic RNA.[52]
Transcription of nested mRNAsNested set of subgenomic mRNAs
Transcription – The other important function of the complex is to transcribe the viral genome. RdRp directly mediates thesynthesis of negative-sense subgenomic RNA molecules from the positive-sense genomic RNA. This process is followed by the transcription of these negative-sense subgenomic RNA molecules to their corresponding positive-sensemRNAs.[52] The subgenomic mRNAs form a "nested set" which have a common 5'-head and partially duplicate 3'-end.[66]
Recombination – The replicase-transcriptase complex is also capable ofgenetic recombination when at least two viral genomes are present in the same infected cell.[66] RNA recombination appears to be a major driving force in determining genetic variability within a coronavirus species, the capability of a coronavirus species to jump from one host to another and, infrequently, in determining the emergence of novel coronaviruses.[67] The exact mechanism of recombination in coronaviruses is unclear, but likely involves template switching during genome replication.[67]
Assembly and release
The replicated positive-sense genomic RNA becomes the genome of theprogeny viruses. The mRNAs are gene transcripts of the last third of the virus genome after the initial overlapping reading frame. These mRNAs are translated by the host's ribosomes into the structural proteins and many accessory proteins.[52] RNA translation occurs inside theendoplasmic reticulum. The viral structural proteins S, E, and M move along the secretory pathway into theGolgi intermediate compartment. There, the Mproteins direct most protein-protein interactions required for the assembly of viruses following its binding to thenucleocapsid. Progeny viruses are then released from the host cell byexocytosis through secretory vesicles. Once released the viruses can infect other host cells.[68]
For a more detailed list of members, seeCoronaviridae.
Phylogenetic tree of coronaviruses
Coronaviruses form the subfamilyOrthocoronavirinae,[2][3][4] which is one of two subfamilies in the familyCoronaviridae, orderNidovirales, and realmRiboviria.[45][74] They are divided into the four genera:Alphacoronavirus,Betacoronavirus,Gammacoronavirus andDeltacoronavirus. Alphacoronaviruses and betacoronaviruses infect mammals, while gammacoronaviruses and deltacoronaviruses primarily infect birds.[75][76]
Origins of human coronaviruses with possible intermediate hosts
Themost recent common ancestor (MRCA) of all coronaviruses is estimated to have existed as recently as 8000 BCE, although some models place the common ancestor as far back as 55 million years or more, implying long term coevolution with bat and avian species.[77] The most recent common ancestor of the alphacoronavirus line has been placed at about 2400 BCE, of the betacoronavirus line at 3300 BCE, of the gammacoronavirus line at 2800 BCE, and the deltacoronavirus line at about 3000 BCE. Bats and birds, aswarm-blooded flying vertebrates, are an idealnatural reservoir for the coronavirus gene pool (withbats the reservoir for alphacoronaviruses and betacoronavirus – and birds the reservoir for gammacoronaviruses and deltacoronaviruses). The large number and global range of bat and avian species that host viruses have enabled extensive evolution and dissemination of coronaviruses.[17] A number of 2021 studies found that the MRCA for Coronaviruses may have emerged around 21,000–25,000 years ago in East Asia, which is significantly earlier than most prior estimates.[15][16]
Many human coronaviruses have their origin in bats.[78] The human coronavirus NL63 shared a common ancestor with a bat coronavirus (ARCoV.2) between 1190 and 1449 CE.[79] The human coronavirus 229E shared a common ancestor with a bat coronavirus (GhanaGrp1 Bt CoV) between 1686 and 1800 CE.[80] More recently,alpaca coronavirus and human coronavirus 229E diverged sometime before 1960.[81] MERS-CoV emerged in humans from bats through the intermediate host of camels.[82] MERS-CoV, although related to several bat coronavirus species, appears to have diverged from these several centuries ago.[83] The most closely related bat coronavirus and SARS-CoV diverged in 1986.[84] The ancestors of SARS-CoV first infected leaf-nose bats of the genusHipposideridae; subsequently, they spread to horseshoe bats in the speciesRhinolophidae, then toAsian palm civets, and finally to humans.[85][86]
Unlike other betacoronaviruses,bovine coronavirus of the speciesBetacoronavirus 1 and subgenusEmbecovirus is thought to have originated inrodents and not in bats.[78][87] In the 1790s, equine coronavirus diverged from the bovine coronavirus after across-species jump.[88] Later in the 1890s, human coronavirus OC43 diverged from bovine coronavirus after another cross-species spillover event.[89][88] It is speculated that theflu pandemic of 1890 may have been caused by this spillover event, and not by theinfluenza virus, because of the related timing, neurological symptoms, and unknown causative agent of the pandemic.[90] Besides causing respiratory infections, human coronavirus OC43 is also suspected of playing a role inneurological diseases.[91] In the 1950s, the human coronavirus OC43 began to diverge into its presentgenotypes.[92] Phylogenetically, mouse hepatitis virus (Murine coronavirus), which infects the mouse's liver andcentral nervous system,[93] is related to human coronavirus OC43 and bovine coronavirus. Human coronavirus HKU1, like the aforementioned viruses, also has its origins in rodents.[78]
Infection in humans
Transmission and life-cycle of SARS-CoV-2 causingCOVID-19
Six species of human coronaviruses are known, with one species subdivided into two different strains, making seven strains of human coronaviruses altogether.
Seasonal distribution of HCoV-NL63 in Germany shows a preferential detection from November to March.
Four human coronaviruses produce symptoms that are generally mild, even though it is contended they might have been more aggressive in the past:[96]
Although thecommon cold is usually caused byrhinoviruses,[97] in about 15% of cases the cause is a coronavirus.[98] The human coronaviruses HCoV-OC43, HCoV-HKU1, HCoV-229E, and HCoV-NL63 continually circulate in the human population in adults and children worldwide and produce the generally mild symptoms of the common cold.[91] The four mild coronaviruses have a seasonal incidence occurring in the winter months intemperate climates.[99][100] There is no preponderance in any season intropical climates.[101]
In 2003, following the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) which had begun the prior year in Asia, and secondary cases elsewhere in the world, theWorld Health Organization (WHO) issued a press release stating that a novel coronavirus identified by several laboratories was the causative agent for SARS. The virus was officially named the SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV). More than 8,000 people from 29 countries and territories were infected, and at least 774 died.[111][73]
In September 2012, a new type of coronavirus was identified, initially called Novel Coronavirus 2012, and now officially named Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV).[112][113] The World Health Organization issued a global alert soon after.[114] The WHO update on 28 September 2012 said the virus did not seem to pass easily from person to person.[115] However, on 12 May 2013, a case ofhuman-to-human transmission in France was confirmed by the French Ministry of Social Affairs and Health.[116] In addition, cases of human-to-human transmission were reported by the Ministry of Health inTunisia. Two confirmed cases involved people who seemed to have caught the disease from their late father, who became ill after a visit to Qatar and Saudi Arabia. Despite this, it appears the virus had trouble spreading from human to human, as most individuals who are infected do not transmit the virus.[117] By 30 October 2013, there were 124 cases and 52 deaths in Saudi Arabia.[118]
After the DutchErasmus Medical Centre sequenced the virus, the virus was given a new name, Human Coronavirus–Erasmus Medical Centre (HCoV-EMC). The final name for the virus is Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). The only U.S. cases (both survived) were recorded in May 2014.[119]
In May 2015, an outbreak of MERS-CoV occurred in theRepublic of Korea, when a man who had traveled to the Middle East, visited four hospitals in the Seoul area to treat his illness. This caused one of the largest outbreaks of MERS-CoV outside the Middle East.[120] As of December 2019, 2,468 cases of MERS-CoV infection had been confirmed by laboratory tests, 851 of which were fatal, amortality rate of approximately 34.5%.[121]
As of 10 March 2023, there were at least 6,881,955[107]confirmed deaths and more than 676,609,955[107]confirmed cases in theCOVID-19 pandemic. The Wuhan strain has been identified as a new strain ofBetacoronavirus from group 2B with approximately 70% genetic similarity to the SARS-CoV.[127] The virus has a 96% similarity to a bat coronavirus, so it is widely suspected to originate from bats as well.[128][129]
During a surveillance study of archived samples of Malaysian viral pneumonia patients, virologists identified a strain ofcanine coronavirus which has infected humans in 2018.
Infection in animals
Coronaviruses have been recognized as causing pathological conditions inveterinary medicine since the 1930s.[22] They infect a range of animals including swine, cattle, horses, camels, cats, dogs, rodents, birds and bats.[130] The majority of animal related coronaviruses infect theintestinal tract and are transmitted by a fecal-oral route.[131] Significant research efforts have been focused on elucidating theviral pathogenesis of these animal coronaviruses, especially byvirologists interested in veterinary andzoonotic diseases.[132]
Farm animals
Coronaviruses infect domesticated birds.[133]Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), a type of coronavirus, causesavian infectious bronchitis.[134] The virus is of concern to thepoultry industry because of the high mortality from infection, its rapid spread, and its effect on production.[130] The virus affects both meat production and egg production and causes substantial economic loss.[135] In chickens, infectious bronchitis virus targets not only the respiratory tract but also theurogenital tract. The virus can spread to different organs throughout the chicken.[134] The virus is transmitted by aerosol and food contaminated by feces. Differentvaccines against IBV exist and have helped to limit the spread of the virus and its variants.[130] Infectious bronchitis virus is one of a number of strains of the speciesAvian coronavirus.[136] Another strain of avian coronavirus isturkey coronavirus (TCV) which causesenteritis inturkeys.[130]
Coronaviruses infect domestic pets such as cats, dogs, and ferrets.[133] There are two forms offeline coronavirus which are both members of the speciesAlphacoronavirus 1.[139] Feline enteric coronavirus is a pathogen of minor clinical significance, but spontaneousmutation of this virus can result infeline infectious peritonitis (FIP), a disease with high mortality.[130] There are two different coronaviruses that infect dogs.Canine coronavirus (CCoV), which is a member of the speciesAlphacoronavirus 1,[139] causes mild gastrointestinal disease.[130]Canine respiratory coronavirus (CRCoV), which is a member of the speciesBetacoronavirus 1 and related to HCoV-OC43,[142] cause respiratory disease.[130] Similarly, there are two types of coronavirus that infect ferrets.[143]Ferret enteric coronavirus causes a gastrointestinal syndrome known as epizootic catarrhal enteritis (ECE), and a more lethal systemic version of the virus (like FIP in cats) known as ferret systemic coronavirus (FSC).[144][145]
Laboratory animals
Coronaviruses infect laboratory animals.[130] Mouse hepatitis virus (MHV), which is a member of the speciesMurine coronavirus,[146] causes an epidemicmurine illness with high mortality, especially among colonies of laboratory mice.[147] Prior to the discovery of SARS-CoV, MHV was the best-studied coronavirus bothin vivo andin vitro as well as at the molecular level. Some strains of MHV cause a progressivedemyelinating encephalitis in mice which has been used as a murine model formultiple sclerosis.[132]Sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV), which is a strain of the speciesMurine coronavirus,[146] is highly infectious coronavirus of laboratory rats, which can be transmitted between individuals by direct contact and indirectly by aerosol. Rabbit enteric coronavirus causes acute gastrointestinal disease and diarrhea in youngEuropean rabbits.[130] Mortality rates are high.[148]
Prevention and treatment
Anumber of vaccines using different methods have been developed against human coronavirus SARS-CoV-2.[149][150]Antiviral targets against human coronaviruses have also been identified such as viral proteases, polymerases, and entry proteins.Drugs are in development which target these proteins and the different steps of viral replication.[151][150]
Vaccines are available for animal coronaviruses IBV, TGEV, and Canine CoV, although their effectiveness is limited. In the case of outbreaks of highly contagious animal coronaviruses, such as PEDV, measures such asdestruction of entire herds of pigs may be used to prevent transmission to other herds.[52]
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^abcdAlmeida JD, Berry DM, Cunningham CH, Hamre D, Hofstad MS, Mallucci L, et al. (November 1968)."Virology: Coronaviruses".Nature.220 (5168): 650.Bibcode:1968Natur.220..650..doi:10.1038/220650b0.PMC7086490.[T]here is also a characteristic "fringe" of projections 200 A long, which are rounded or petal shaped... This appearance, recalling the solar corona, is shared by mouse hepatitis virus and several viruses recently recovered from man, namely strain B814, 229E and several others.
^abTyrrell DA, Fielder M (2002).Cold Wars: The Fight Against the Common Cold. Oxford University Press. p. 96.ISBN978-0-19-263285-2.We looked more closely at the appearance of the new viruses and noticed that they had a kind of halo surrounding them. Recourse to a dictionary produced the Latin equivalent, corona, and so the name coronavirus was born.
^abcMcIntosh K (1974). "Coronaviruses: A Comparative Review". In Arber W, Haas R, Henle W, Hofschneider PH, Jerne NK, Koldovský P, Koprowski H, Maaløe O, Rott R (eds.).Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology / Ergebnisse der Mikrobiologie und Immunitätsforschung. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. p. 87.doi:10.1007/978-3-642-65775-7_3.ISBN978-3-642-65775-7.
^Hamre D, Procknow JJ (January 1966). "A new virus isolated from the human respiratory tract".Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine.121 (1):190–3.doi:10.3181/00379727-121-30734.PMID4285768.S2CID1314901.
^Monto AS, Cowling BJ, Peiris JS (2014), Kaslow RA, Stanberry LR, Le Duc JW (eds.), "Coronaviruses",Viral Infections of Humans, Boston, MA: Springer US:199–223,doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-7448-8_10,ISBN978-1-4899-7447-1,PMC7122465,The other OC strains and B814 that could not be adapted to mouse brain resisted adaptation to cell culture as well; these distinct viruses have since been lost and may actually have been rediscovered recently
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^Fehr AR, Perlman S (2015). "Coronaviruses: An Overview of Their Replication and Pathogenesis". In Maier HJ, Bickerton E, Britton P (eds.).Coronaviruses. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 1282. Springer. pp. 1–23.doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7_1.ISBN978-1-4939-2438-7.PMC4369385.PMID25720466.See section: Coronavirus Life Cycle—Assembly and Release
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