In addition to the Mainland, most of the remaining islands are divided into two groups: the North Isles and the South Isles. Thelocal climate is relatively mild and the soils are extremely fertile; most of the land is farmed, and agriculture is the most important sector of the economy. The significant wind and marine energy resources are of growing importance; the amount of electricity that Orkney generates annually from renewable energy sources exceeds its demand. Temperatures average 4 °C (39 °F) in winter and 12 °C (54 °F) in summer.
The local people are known as Orcadians; they speak a distinctivedialect of theScots language and have a rich body of folklore. Orkney contains some of the oldest and best-preserved Neolithic sites in Europe; the "Heart of Neolithic Orkney" is a designatedUNESCOWorld Heritage Site. Orkney also has an abundance of marine and avian wildlife.
Pytheas ofMassalia visited Britain – probably sometime between 322 and 285 BC – and described it as triangular in shape, with a northern tip calledOrcas.[8]This may have referred toDunnet Head, from which Orkney is visible.[9] Writing in the 1st century AD, the Roman geographersPtolemy[10] andPomponius Mela called the islandsOrcades (Ancient Greek: Όρκάδες), as didTacitus in AD 98, claiming that his father-in-lawAgricola had "discovered and subjugated the Orcades hitherto unknown"[9][11] (although both Mela andPliny had previously referred to the islands[8]). TheByzantineJohn Tzetzes in his workChiliades called the islands Orcades.[12]
Norwegian settlers arriving from the late ninth century reinterpretedorc as theOld Norseorkn "seal" and addedeyjar "islands" to the end,[20] so the name becameOrkneyjar "Seal Islands". The plural suffix-jar was later removed in English leaving the modern nameOrkney. According to theHistoria Norwegiæ, Orkney was named after anearl called Orkan.[21]
The Norse knewMainland, Orkney asMegenland "Mainland" or asHrossey "Horse Island".[22] The island is sometimes referred to asPomona (orPomonia), a name that stems from a 16th-century mistranslation byGeorge Buchanan, which has rarely been used locally.[23][24]
Usage of the plural "Orkneys" dates from the 18th century or earlier and was used by for example SirWalter Scott. From the mid-19th century onwards this plural form has fallen out of use in the local area although it is still often used, particularly by publications based outside Scotland.[25][Notes 2]
A charredhazelnut shell, recovered in 2007 during excavations inTankerness on the Mainland, has been dated to 6820–6660 BC, indicating the presence of Mesolithic nomadic tribes.[30] The earliest known permanent settlement is atKnap of Howar, a Neolithic farmstead on the island ofPapa Westray, which dates from 3500 BC. The village ofSkara Brae, Europe's best-preserved Neolithic settlement, is believed to have been inhabited from around 3100 BC.[31] Other remains from that era include theStanding Stones of Stenness, theMaeshowepassage grave, theRing of Brodgar and other standing stones. Many of the Neolithic settlements were abandoned around 2500 BC, possibly due to changes in the climate.[32][33][34]
In September 2021, archaeologists announced the discovery of two polished stone balls in a 5500-year-old Neolithic burial tomb inSanday. According to Dr Hugo Anderson, the second object was as the "size of a cricket ball, perfectly spherical and beautifully finished".[35][36][37]
During theBronze Age, fewer large stone structures were built (although the great ceremonial circles continued in use[38]) as metalworking was slowly introduced to Britain from Europe over a lengthy period.[39][40] There are relatively few Orcadian sites dating from this era although there is the impressive Plumcake Mound near the Ring of Brodgar,[41] and various island sites such as Tofts Ness onSanday and the remains of two houses onHolm of Faray.[42][43]
Excavations atQuanterness on the Mainland have revealed anAtlantic roundhouse built about 700 BC and similar finds have been made at Bu on the Mainland and Pierowall Quarry on Westray.[44] The most impressiveIron Age structures of Orkney are the ruins of later round towers called "brochs" and their associated settlements such as theBroch of Burroughston[45] andBroch of Gurness. The nature and origin of these buildings is a subject of debate. Other structures from this period includeunderground storehouses andaisled roundhouses, the latter usually in association with earlier broch sites.[46][47]
During theRoman invasion of Britain the "King of Orkney" was one of 11 British leaders who is said to have submitted to the EmperorClaudius in AD 43 atCamulodunum (modern Colchester).[48][Notes 3] After the Agricolan fleet had come and gone, possibly anchoring atShapinsay, direct Roman influence seems to have been limited to trade rather than conquest.[51]Polemius Silvius wrote a list of Late Roman provinces, whichSeeck appended to his edition of theNotitia Dignitatum.[52] The list names six provinces in Roman Britannia: the sixth is the dubious "Orcades provincia", the possible existence of which recent researches re-evaluate.[53]
By the late Iron Age, Orkney was part of thePictish kingdom, and although thearchaeological remains from this period are less impressive, the fertile soils and rich seas of Orkney probably provided the Picts with a comfortable living.[51][Notes 4] TheDalriadicGaels began to influence the islands towards the close of the Pictish era, perhaps principally through the role ofCelticmissionaries, as evidenced by several islands bearing the epithet "Papa" in commemoration of these preachers.[55] Before the Gaelic presence could establish itself the Picts were gradually dispossessed by theNorth Germanic peoples from the late 8th century onwards. The nature of this transition is controversial, and theories range from peaceful integration toenslavement andgenocide.[56] It has been suggested that an assault by forces fromFortriu in 681 in which Orkney was "annihilated" may have led to a weakening of the local power base and helped the Norse come to prominence.[57]
Both Orkney andShetland saw a significant influx of Norwegian settlers during the late 8th and early 9th centuries.Vikings made the islands the headquarters of theirpirate expeditions carried out against Norway and the coasts of mainland Scotland. In response, Norwegian kingHarald Fairhair (Harald Hårfagre) annexed theNorthern Isles, comprising Orkney and Shetland, in 875 (it is clear that this story, which appears in theOrkneyinga Saga, is based on the later voyages ofMagnus Barelegs and some scholars believe it to beapocryphal).[58]Rognvald Eysteinsson received Orkney and Shetland from Harald as an earldom as reparation for the death of his son in battle in Scotland, and then passed the earldom on to his brotherSigurd the Mighty.[59] Sigurd went on to conquer northern parts of mainland Britain in the late 9th century, includingCaithness andSutherland.[60]
However, Sigurd's line barely survived him and it wasTorf-Einarr, Rognvald's son by a slave, who founded a dynasty that controlled the islands for centuries after his death.[61][Notes 5] He was succeeded by his sonThorfinn Skull-splitter and during this time the deposed Norwegian KingEric Bloodaxe often used Orkney as a raiding base before being killed in 954. Thorfinn's death and presumed burial at thebroch of Hoxa, onSouth Ronaldsay, led to a long period of dynastic strife.[63][64]
Initially a pagan culture, detailed information about the turn to the Christian religion in the islands of Scotland during the Norse era is elusive.[66] TheOrkneyinga Saga suggests the islands were Christianised byOlaf Tryggvasson in 995 when he stopped atSouth Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway. The King summoned thejarlSigurd the Stout[Notes 6] and said, "I order you and all your subjects to be baptised. If you refuse, I'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel." Unsurprisingly, Sigurd agreed and the islands became Christian at a stroke,[65] receiving their ownbishop in the early 11th century.[Notes 7][Notes 8]
TheScottish crown claimed the overlordship of the Caithness and Sutherland area from Norway in 1098.[74] The jarls thereafter owed allegiance to the Scottish crown for their territory on mainland Britain, which they held as theMormaer of Caithness, but owed allegiance to the Norwegian crown for Orkney and Shetland.[60][75] In 1195, the jarls lost control of Shetland when it became a separate lordship.[76]
In 1231 the line of Norse earls, unbroken since Rognvald, ended withJon Haraldsson's murder inThurso.[77] TheEarldom of Caithness was granted toMagnus, second son of theEarl of Angus, whomHaakon IV of Norway confirmed as Earl of Orkney in 1236.[78] Around the same time, the earldom lost the southern part of its territory on mainland Britain when it was made the separate earldom of Sutherland.[79]
Lerwick Town Hall stained glass window depicting "Margaret, queen of Scotland and daughter of Norway"
The history of Orkney prior to this time is largely the history of the ruling aristocracy. From then on ordinary people emerge with greater clarity. An influx of Scottish entrepreneurs helped to create a diverse and independent community that included farmers, fishermen and merchants that called themselvescomunitas Orcadie and who proved themselves increasingly able to defend their rights against their feudal overlords.[94][95]
From at least the 16th century boats from mainland Scotland and the Netherlands dominated the localherring fishery. There is little evidence of an Orcadian fleet until the 19th century, but it grew rapidly, and 700 boats were involved by the 1840s, with Stronsay and laterStromness becoming leading centres of development.White fish never became as dominant as in other Scottish ports.[96]
Blaeu's 1654 map of Orkney and Shetland. Mapmakers at this time continued to use the original Latin nameOrcades.
Agricultural improvements beginning in the 17th century resulted in the enclosure of the commons and ultimately in the Victorian era the emergence of large and well-managed farms using a five-shift rotation system and producing high-quality beef cattle.[97]
In the 17th century Orcadians formed the overwhelming majority of employees of theHudson's Bay Company in Canada. The harsh winter weather of Orkney and the Orcadian reputation for sobriety and their boat-handling skills made them ideal candidates for the rigours of the Canadian north.[98] During this period, burningkelp briefly became a mainstay of the islands' economy. For example, on Shapinsay over 3,000long tons (3,048 t) of burned seaweed were produced per annum to makesoda ash, bringing in £20,000 to the local economy.[99] The industry collapsed suddenly in 1830 after the removal of tariffs on importedalkali.[100]
During the 18th centuryJacobite risings Orkney was largely Jacobite in its sympathies. At the end of the 1715 rebellion, a large number of Jacobites who had fled north from mainland Scotland sought refuge in Orkney and were helped on to safety in Sweden.[101] In 1745, the Jacobite lairds on the islands ensured that Orkney remained pro-Jacobite in outlook and was a safe place to land supplies from Spain to aid their cause. Orkney was the last place in the British Isles that held out for the Jacobites and was not retaken by theBritish Government until 24 May 1746, over a month after the defeat of the main Jacobite army atCulloden.[102]
Orkney was the site of aRoyal Navy base atScapa Flow, which played a major role inWorld War I andWorld War II. After theArmistice in 1918, theGerman High Seas Fleet was transferred in its entirety to Scapa Flow to await a decision on its future.The German sailors opened the seacocks and scuttled all the ships. Most ships were salvaged, but the remaining wrecks are now a favoured haunt of recreational divers. One month into World War II, a GermanU-boat sank the Royal Navy battleshipHMS Royal Oak in Scapa Flow. As a result,barriers were built to close most of the access channels; these had the additional advantage of creating causeways enabling travellers to go from island to island by road instead of being obliged to rely on ferries. The causeways were constructed by Italian prisoners of war, who also constructed the ornateItalian Chapel.[103]
The navy base became run down after the war, eventually closing in 1957. The problem of a declining population was significant in the post-war years, though in the last decades of the 20th century, there was a recovery and life in Orkney focused on growing prosperity and the emergence of a relatively classless society.[104] Orkney was rated as the best place to live in Scotland in both 2013 and 2014, and in 2019 the best place to live in the UK, according to the Halifax Quality of Life survey.[105][106]
In the modern era, the population peaked in the mid-19th century at just over 32,000 and declined for a century thereafter to a low of fewer than 18,000 in the 1970s. Declines were particularly significant in the outlying islands, some of which remain vulnerable to ongoing losses. Although Orkney is in many ways very distinct from the other islands and archipelagos of Scotland these trends are very similar to those experienced elsewhere.[109][107] The archipelago's population grew by 11% in the decade to 2011 as recorded by thecensus.[4][110] During the same periodScottish island populations as a whole grew by 4% to 103,702.[111]
Genetic studies have shown that 25% of the gene pool of Orkney derives from Norwegian ancestors who occupied the islands in the 9th century.[112]
In 2022 the census recorded a total population of 21,958 an increase of 2.85% since 2011[108] and of which 17,805 (81%) lived on the mainland.[113]
The most numerous non-British residents were from Ireland (125 persons) and Poland (98 persons). 352 individuals were recorded as belonging to non-white ethnic groups of whom just over half were of Asian origin.[114]
36% of the population identified as Christian, with 27% adhering to theChurch of Scotland and 2.7% beingRoman Catholic. Just under 2% professed to another religion of which the largest group was 197 individuals recorded aspagan. 62% of the population stated they had no religion or did not provide an answer to this question.[115] The main language of all but 238 individuals over the age of 3 was either English orScots.[116]
Orkney is separated from the mainland of Scotland by thePentland Firth, a ten-kilometre-wide (6 mi) seaway between Brough Ness on the island ofSouth Ronaldsay andDuncansby Head inCaithness.[117] Orkney lies between 58°41′ and 59°24′ north, and 2°22′ and 3°26′ west, measuring 80 kilometres (50 mi) from northeast to southwest and 47 kilometres (29 mi) from east to west, and covers 975 square kilometres (376 sq mi).[118][119]
The islands are mainly low-lying except for some sharply rising sandstone hills on Mainland, Rousay and Hoy (where the tallest point in Orkney,Ward Hill, can be found) and rugged cliffs on some western coasts. Nearly all of the islands havelochs, but the watercourses are merely streams draining the high land. The coastlines are indented, and the islands themselves are divided from each other by straits generally called "sounds" or "firths".[117][118][121]
Thetidal currents, or "roosts" as some of them are called locally,[122] off many of the isles are swift, with frequent whirlpools.[117][Notes 15] The islands are notable for the absence of trees, which is partly accounted for by the strong winds.[124]
The superficial rock of Orkney is almost entirelyOld Red Sandstone, mostly of MiddleDevonian age.[127] As in the neighbouring mainland county ofCaithness, this sandstone rests upon themetamorphic and igneous rocks of theMoine series, as may be seen on the Mainland, where a narrow strip is exposed between Stromness and Inganess, and again in the small island ofGraemsay; they are represented by greygneiss andgranite.[117][128]
The Middle Devonian is divided into three main groups. The lower part of the sequence, mostlyEifelian in age, is dominated by lacustrine beds of the lower and upper Stromness Flagstones that were deposited inLake Orcadie.[129] The later Rousay flagstone formation is found throughout much of the North and South Isles and East Mainland.[130]
The Old Man of Hoy is formed from sandstone of the uppermostEday Group that is up to 800 metres (2,600 ft) thick in places. It liesunconformably upon steeply inclined flagstones, the interpretation of which is a matter of continuing debate.[130][131]
The Devonian and older rocks of Orkney are cut by a series of WSW–ENE to N–S trending faults, many of which were active during deposition of the Devonian sequences.[132]
Middle Devonianbasalticvolcanic rocks are found on western Hoy, on Deerness in eastern Mainland and on Shapinsay. Correlation between the Hoy volcanics and the other two exposures has been proposed, but differences in chemistry mean this remains uncertain.[133]Lamprophyredykes of LatePermian age are found throughout Orkney.[134]
Aerial image ofSands of Evie, a beach near Stenso, Mainland
Orkney has a cool temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerlylatitude, due to the influence of the warm waters of theNorwegian Current, a north-easterly extension of theNorth Atlantic Drift which is itself an extension of theGulf Stream.[136] The average temperature for the year is 8 °C (46 °F); for winter 4 °C (39 °F) and for summer 12 °C (54 °F).[137]
The average annual rainfall varies from 850 millimetres (33 in) to 1,060 millimetres (42 in).[137] Winds are a key feature of the climate and even in summer there are almost constant breezes. In winter, there are frequent strong winds, with an average of 52 hours of gales being recorded annually.[138]
To tourists, one of the fascinations of the islands is their "nightless" summers. On thelongest day, the sun rises at 04:00 and sets at 22:29BST and complete darkness is unknown. This long twilight is known in the Northern Isles as the "simmer dim".[139] Winter nights are long. On theshortest day the sun rises at 09:05 and sets at 15:16.[140] At this time of year theaurora borealis can occasionally be seen on the northern horizon during moderate auroral activity.[141]
The first averages table below is for the largest settlement Kirkwall's weather station, the second is for theLoch of Hundland, a rural location to the northwest of Mainland.
Climate data for Kirkwall, 26m asl, 1991–2020 normals, Extremes 1951–
On its absorption into Scotland in 1472, the landholdings and jurisdictions of the old earldom of Orkney passed to the Scottish crown. The separate lordship of Shetland was absorbed into Scotland at the same time.[76] More typically Scottish forms of administration were gradually introduced to the Northern Isles. The position ofSheriff of Orkney and Shetland was created in 1541.[148] Orkney and Shetland retained their own legal systems until 1612, when the general laws of Scotland were applied.[149]
Commissioners of Supply were established in 1667 for each shire across Scotland. Unusually, despite being oneshire, Orkney and Shetland were given separate bodies of commissioners.[150][151] More local government functions were gradually given to the commissioners over time.[152] At a court case in 1829, theCourt of Session declined to rule on whether Orkney and Shetland were one county or two. They operated as one county for the purposes of the administration of justice,lieutenancy, andparliamentary constituencies, but operated as two counties for local government functions.[153] Elected county councils were created in 1890 under theLocal Government (Scotland) Act 1889, taking most of the functions of the commissioners (which were eventually abolished in 1930). The 1889 Act also directed that Orkney and Shetland were to be separate counties.[154]
Kirkwall Sheriff Court, completed 1877: Orkney's main courthouse, also served as headquarters of Orkney County Council 1890–1975
Orkney County Council held its first meeting on 22 May 1890 atKirkwall Sheriff Court, also known as County Buildings, on Watergate in Kirkwall, which had been completed in 1877 and also served as the meeting place of the commissioners of supply.[155][156]
Local government was reformed in 1975 under theLocal Government (Scotland) Act 1973, which replaced Scotland's counties,burghs andlandward districts. In most of Scotland a two-tier structure of upper-tier regions and lower-tier districts was used, but a single-tier structure ofisland areas was used for Orkney, Shetland and theWestern Isles.[157] Further local government reform in 1996 introduced single-tier council areas across all of Scotland. The councils of the three island areas created in 1975 continued to provide the same services after 1996, but their areas were re-designated as council areas.[158]
Parishes existed from medieval times. From 1845 to 1894 they had parish boards and from 1894 to 1930 they had parish councils. They have had no administrative functions since 1930, but continue to be used for the presentation of statistics.[159]
Community councils were created in 1975 as part of the wider reforms that year. They have no statutory powers, but serve as a representative body for their communities. Orkney Islands Council designates community council areas, but a community council is only formed if there is sufficient interest from the residents. Since a review in 2022, Orkney has comprised the following communities, all of which have community councils operating as at 2024:[163][164]
Stromness on the Mainland is the second-largest settlement in Orkney.
The Mainland is the largest island of Orkney. Both of Orkney'sburghs,Kirkwall andStromness, are on this island, which is also the heart of Orkney's transport system, withferry and air connections to the other islands and to the outside world. The island is more heavily populated (75% of Orkney's population) than the other islands and has much fertilefarmland. The Mainland is split into areas called East and West Mainland. These areas are determined by whether they lie east or west of Kirkwall. The bulk of the mainland lies west of Kirkwall, with comparatively little land east of Kirkwall.[165][118]West Mainland parishes are:Stromness, Sandwick, Birsay, Harray, Stenness, Orphir, Evie, Rendall and Firth.East Mainland Parishes are:St Ola, Tankerness, St Andrews, Holm and Deerness.[160]
The other islands in the group are classified as north or south of the Mainland. Exceptions are the remote islets ofSule Skerry andSule Stack, which lie 60 kilometres (37 mi) west of the archipelago, but form part of Orkney for local government purposes.[118] In island names, thesuffix "a" or "ay" represents the Norseey, meaning "island". Those described as "holms" are very small.[167]
The northern group of islands is the most extensive and consists of a large number of moderately sized islands, linked to the Mainland by ferries and by air services. Farming, fishing and tourism are the main sources of income for most of the islands.[2][118]
The most northerly isNorth Ronaldsay, which lies 4 kilometres (2 mi) beyond its nearest neighbour,Sanday. To the west isWestray, which has a population of 550. It is connected by ferry and air toPapa Westray, also known as "Papay".Eday is at the centre of the North Isles. The centre of the island ismoorland and the island's main industries have been peat extraction andlimestonequarrying.[2]
Rousay,Egilsay andGairsay lie north of the west Mainland across theEynhallow Sound. Rousay is well known for its ancient monuments, including the Quoynesschambered cairn and Egilsay has the ruins of the only round-towered church in Orkney.Wyre to the south-east contains the site of Cubbie Roo's castle.Stronsay andPapa Stronsay lie much further to the east across the Stronsay Firth.Auskerry is south of Stronsay and has a population of only five.Shapinsay and itsBalfour Castle are a short distance north of Kirkwall.[2]
The southern group of islands surroundsScapa Flow.Hoy, to the west, is the second largest of the Orkney Isles andWard Hill at its northern end is the highest elevation in the archipelago. TheOld Man of Hoy is a well-knownseastack.Graemsay andFlotta are both linked by ferry to the Mainland and Hoy, and the latter is known for its large oil terminal.South Walls has a 19th-centuryMartello tower and is connected to Hoy by the Ayre.[2]Burray lies to the east of Scapa Flow and is linked by causeway to South Ronaldsay, which hosts cultural events such as the Festival of the Horse and the Boys'Ploughing Match on the third Saturday in August.[170] It is also the location of the NeolithicTomb of the Eagles. South Ronaldsay, Burray,Glimps Holm, andLamb Holm are connected by road to the Mainland by theChurchill Barriers.[2]
The Orkney Movement, a political party that supported devolution for Orkney from the rest of Scotland, contested the1987 general election as theOrkney and Shetland Movement (a coalition of the Orkney movement and its equivalent for Shetland). TheScottish National Party chose not to contest the seat to give the movement a "free run". Their candidate, John Goodlad, came 4th with 3,095 votes, 14.5% of those cast, but the experiment has not been repeated.[177]
In the2014 Scottish independence referendum 67.2% of voters in Orkney voted no to the question "Should Scotland be an independent country?" This was the highest no vote by percentage in any council area in Scotland.[178] Turnout for the referendum was at 83.7% in Orkney with 10,004 votes cast in the area against independence by comparison to 4,883 votes for independence.[179] In the2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum 63.2% of voters in Orkney voted Remain.[180]
In 2022, as part of theLevelling Up White Paper, an "Island Forum" was proposed, which would allow local policymakers and residents in Orkney to work alongside their counterparts inShetland, theWestern Isles,Anglesey and theIsle of Wight on common issues, such as broadband connectivity, and provide a platform for them to communicate directly with the government on the challenges island communities face in terms of levelling up.[181][182] In July 2023, Orkney Council investigated proposals to change its status, looking at options that included becoming aBritish Crown Dependency, aself-governing territory within the Kingdom of Norway or just staying in the United Kingdom.[183]
The percentage of the Orkney population who are economically active is consistently higher than the Scottish average. In 2023 it was 89.8% compared to 77.9% for the latter, in which year average unemployment was 1.6%.[184]
The soil of Orkney is generally very fertile and most of the land is taken up by farms, agriculture being by far the most important sector of the economy and providing employment for a quarter of the workforce according to a 2008 report.[185] More than 90% of agricultural land is used for grazing for sheep and cattle, with cereal production utilising about 4% (3,800 hectares (9,400 acres)) and woodland occupying only 91 hectares (220 acres).[186] 44% of Orkney businesses are in the agriculture, forestry and fishing sector.[187] 90% of the islands' milk production goes towards the manufacture of Orkney Cheddar cheese.[188]
Fishing has declined in importance, but still employed 238 individuals in 2023, just under 4% of the islands' total employment.[189] The modern industry concentrating onherring, white fish,lobsters,crabs and other shellfish, andsalmon fish farming.[Notes 16]
A 2009 report indicated the traditional sectors of the economy exportbeef,cheese,whisky,beer,fish and otherseafood. In recent years there has been growth in other areas including tourism, food and beverage manufacture, jewellery, knitwear, and other crafts production, construction and oil transportation through theFlotta oil terminal.[190]
Other important sectors of the economy include manufacturing and construction, retailing, hotels and restaurants and public sector activities such as health and social work.[195][196][197]
there are around 1,500 businesses on the island. More than 90% have fewer than 10 employees. [Estimates indicate] 11,000 jobs, of which around 5,000 are part-time ... There's not much manufacturing, beyond food and drink processing (think cheese and whisky), and apart from the Flotta oil terminal, it lacks big private employers ... Fisheries off Orkney are only half as important to employment as in Shetland, and farming is roughly twice as important.
A report published in February 2020 stated that spending by visitors increased from £49.5 million in 2017 to £67.1 million in 2019, making this a significant sector of the economy.[199] The primary attractions that encourage tourism include the "Heart of Neolithic Orkney" on the main island, defined as "a group of 5,000-year-old sites that include the preserved village of Skara Brae and the Ring of Brodgar stone circle". The Hoy area's landscape is also attractive to visitors, "with its scattered woodland, steep valleys, high cliffs and the famous Old Man, a withered red sandstone sea stack".[200] In 2017, 62% of tourists to Orkney visited for its heritage. TheUHI Archaeology Institute have led excavations at the Ness of Brodgar, contributing to tourism to the area and driving interest in archaeology.[201]
The volume of visitors arriving on ferries declined substantially in 2020, by 71%, due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.[203] A news report added that cruise ships also did not arrive and there were "no day trippers and no holiday lets" as of 25 April 2020. Several major events were cancelled: St Magnus Festival, Orkney Folk Festival, Stromness Shopping Week and the Agricultural Shows.[204]
Pelamis on-site atEMEC's wave testing site off Billia Croo
Orkney has significant wind and marine energy resources, andrenewable energy has recently come into prominence. Although Orkney is connected to the mainland, it generates over100% of its net power from renewables according to a 2015 report.[205] This comes mainly from wind turbines situated across Orkney.[206]
TheEuropean Marine Energy Centre (EMEC) is a research facility operating a grid-connected wave test site at Billia Croo, off the west coast of the Orkney Mainland, and a tidal power test site in theFall of Warness, off the northern island of Eday.[207] At the official opening of the Eday project the site was described as "the first of its kind in the world set up to provide developers of wave and tidal energy devices with a purpose-built performance testing facility."[Notes 17]
A March 2019 report by theBBC stated that "Orkney creates more clean electricity than its inhabitants need. Even after exporting to the UK national grid, the islands' winds, waves and tides generate about 130% of the electricity its population needs – all of it from clean sources".[215] A report about sustainable energy in the islands listed two options. A new cable could be laid for exporting of energy to the mainland but another proposal has progressed rapidly since that time: making "excess renewable power into another fuel – such as hydrogen – and then [storing] it".[216][217]
In May 2020,CNN published more specific information about the hydrogen plan:[218]
Orkney's success in creating hydrogen using clean energy demonstrates that it can be done at scale. The islands are already using hydrogen to power vehicles, and it will soon be used to heat a local primary school. Now, Orkney is hoping to use hydrogen fuel cells to power a seagoing vessel able to transport both goods and passengers.
Additional specific information about the status of the hydrogen scheme was published in late November 2020 by Orkney Islands Council.[219] A few weeks earlier, another report indicated that the world's first hydrogen-fueled ferry was to be tested on the Orkney Islands, using "a hydrogen/diesel dual fuel conversion system", developed by a consortium known as the HyDIME project. Initially hydrogen was to power only the auxiliary engine but the plan calls for later using this fuel for the primary engine. The report suggested that "if all goes well, hydrogen ferries could be sailing between Orkney's islands within six months".[220]
Kirkwall Airport in Orkney was scheduled "to have its heat and power decarbonised throughgreen hydrogen as part of a new project" starting in 2021.[221] A hydrogen combustion engine system was to be connected to the airport's heating system. The scheme planned to reduce the significant emissions that were created with older technology that heated buildings and water. This was part of the plan formulated by the Scottish government for the Highlands and Islands "to become the world's first net zero aviation region by 2040".[222]
Hydrogen manufacturing is also planned forShetland[223] and will spread to other areas of Scotland that have access to clean electricity. To achieve that goal, the government announced an investment of £100 million in the hydrogen sector "for the £180 million Emerging Energy Technologies Fund".[224]
Ferries serve both to link Orkney to the rest of Scotland, and also to link together the various islands of the Orkney archipelago. Ferry services operate between Orkney and the Scottish mainland and Shetland on the following routes:[229][230]
Inter-island ferry services connect all the inhabited islands to Orkney Mainland and are operated byOrkney Ferries, a company owned by Orkney Islands Council. The isles ofWestray,Papa Westray (or Papay),North Ronaldsay,Sanday,Eday,Stronsay, andShapinsay are served from Kirkwall harbour, while the northern end ofHoy andGraemsay are served from Stromness harbour, theLyness end of Hoy, as well asLonghope onSouth Walls, andFlotta are served fromHouton on the south of the mainland, andRousay,Egilsay andWyre are served fromTingwall, in theRendall area of the Orkney mainland. As well as this, theMV Golden Mariana connects the village ofPierowall on Westray with Papa Westray - this provides a vital local service for schoolchildren on Papay as well as supplementing existing through sailings from Kirkwall.[225]
Orkney is served by a weekly local newspaper,The Orcadian, published on Thursdays. It is first published in 1854 and part of the Orkney Media Group, formed out of a partnership with a competing newspaper,Orkney Today, in 2007.[233]
A local BBC radio station,BBC Radio Orkney, the local opt-out ofBBC Radio Scotland, broadcasts twice daily, with local news and entertainment.[234] Orkney also had acommercial radio station,The Superstation Orkney, which broadcast to Kirkwall and parts of the mainland and also to most ofCaithness[235] until its closure in November 2014.[236]MFR broadcasts throughout Orkney on an FM transmitter just outside Thurso. Thecommunity radio station Caithness FM also broadcasts to Orkney.[237]
Orkney is home to theOrkney Library and Archive, based in Kirkwall. The library service provides access to over 145,000 items.[238] They have a wide range of fiction and non-fiction titles available for loan as well as audiobooks, maps, eBooks, music CDs, and DVDs.[239] Orkney Library and Archive operates a Mobile Library Service that serves the rural parishes and islands of Orkney. The Mobile Library carries a wide range of books and audiobooks suitable for all ages and is completely free to use.[240]
After the Norse occupation, thetoponymy of Orkney became almost whollyWest Norse.[245] The Norse language changed into the localNorn, which lingered until the end of the 18th century, when it eventually died out.[244] Norn was replaced by theOrcadian dialect ofInsular Scots. This dialect is at a low ebb due to the pervasive influences of television, education, and the large number of incomers. However, attempts are being made by some writers and radio presenters to revitalise its use[246] and the distinctive sing-songaccent and many dialect words of Norse origin remain in use.[Notes 20] The Orcadian word most frequently encountered by visitors ispeedie, meaning 'small', which may be derived from the Frenchpetit.[248][Notes 21]
Orkney has a rich folklore, and many of the former tales concerntrows, an Orcadian form oftroll that draws on the islands' Scandinavian connections.[250] Local customs in the past included marriage ceremonies at the Odin Stone that formed part of the Stones of Stenness.[251]
The 2022 Scottish Census reported that out of 21,400 residents aged three and over, 8,278 (38.7%) considered themselves able to speak or read theScots language.[253]
The 2022 Scottish Census reported that out of 21,407 residents aged three and over, 177 (0.8%) considered themselves able to speak or readGaelic.[254]
The Bridge of Brodgar, Stenness, 1875 by Walter Hugh Patton (1828–1895)
AnOrcadian is a native of Orkney, a term that reflects a strongly held identity with a tradition of understatement.[255] Although the annexation of the earldom by Scotland took place over five centuries ago in 1472, some Orcadians regard themselves as Orcadians first andScots second.[256] However, in response to the national identity question in the2011 Scotland Census, self-reported levels ofScottish identity in Orkney were in line with the national average.[257]
The Scottish mainland is often referred to as "Scotland" in Orkney, with "the mainland" referring toMainland, Orkney.[258] The archipelago also has a distinct culture, with traditions of theScottish Highlands such astartan,clans,bagpipes not indigenous to the culture of the islands.[259] However, at least two tartans with Orkney connections have been registered and a tartan has been designed for Sanday by one of the island's residents,[260][261][262] and there are pipe bands in Orkney.[263][264]
Native Orcadians refer to the non-native residents of the islands as "ferry loupers" ("loup" meaning "jump" in theScots language),[265] a term that has been in use for nearly two centuries at least.[266][Notes 22]
Orkney has an abundance of wildlife, especially ofgrey andcommon seals and seabirds such aspuffins,kittiwakes,black guillemots (tysties),ravens, andgreat skuas (bonxies). Whales, dolphins, andotters are also seen around the coasts. Inland theOrkney vole, a distinct subspecies of thecommon vole introduced byNeolithic humans, is anendemic.[267][268] There are five distinct varieties, found on the islands of Sanday, Westray, Rousay, South Ronaldsay, and the Mainland, all the more remarkable as the species is absent on mainland Britain.[269]
TheNorth Ronaldsay sheep is an unusual breed of domesticated animal, subsisting largely on a diet ofseaweed, since they are confined to the foreshore for most of the year to conserve the limited grazing inland.[271] The island was also a habitat for the Atlanticwalrus until the mid-16th century.[272]
The Orkney char (Salvelinus inframundus) used to live in Heldale Water on Hoy and has not been observed since 1908, so is now considered to beextinct.[273][274]
The introduction of non-nativestoats since 2010, a natural predator of thecommon vole and thus of theOrkney vole,[275][276] was also harming native bird populations.[277]NatureScot, Scotland's nature agency, provided these additional specifics:[278]
The introduction of a ground predator like the stoat to islands such as Orkney, where there are no native ground predators, is very bad news for Orkney's native species. Stoats are accomplished predators and pose a very serious threat to Orkney's wildlife, including: the native Orkney vole,hen harrier,short-eared owl and many ground nesting birds.
In 2018, a stoat eradication project was presented by NatureScot to be applied "across Orkney Mainland, South Ronaldsay, Burray, Glimps Holm, Lamb Holm and Hunda, and the biosecurity activities delivered on the non-linked islands of the archipelago". The Orkney Native Wildlife Project planned to use "humane DOC150 and DOC200 traps".[279] The partners in the five-year project includeRSPB Scotland,Scottish Natural Heritage and Orkney Islands Council.[280] A report issued in October 2020 stated that over 5,000 traps had been deployed. Specifics were provided as to the locations.[281]
Not all was going well as of 15 January 2021, according toThe Times, which stated that the project "has been hit by alleged sabotage after the destruction and theft of traps that have also killed and injured household pets and other animals" but added that the £6 million programme was supported by most islanders.[282] Another news item stated that some of the traps had "caught and killed family pets as well as hundreds of other animals".[283] A subsequent report confirmed that "Police Scotland is investigating a number of incidents involving damage to and the theft of stoat traps in Orkney".[284]
By 2024 the Orkney Native Wildlife Project had spent £7.9m trapping more than 6,300 stoats. Progress was impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions which prevented trapping in the 2020 breeding season.[285]
A new flag for Orkney was adopted in 2007 following a public competition. It comprises aNordic cross of blue and yellow on a red background. Previously the traditional flag of St Magnus (a red cross on a yellow background) had sometimes been used, but in 2001 it was ruled too similar to other flags to allow it to be formally registered as the area's flag.[291]
TheFreedom of Orkney is a ceremonial award issued by Orkney Islands Council. It can only be awarded twice during the term of any given Council, typically a period of five years. Its roots stretch back to the mid-15th century.[292]
^The proto-Celtic root*φorko-, can mean either pig orsalmon, thus giving an alternative of "island(s) of (the) salmon".[13]
^Anderson notes "'The Orkneys' is now, perhaps thankfully, out of fashion, but the fact is that it was once in fashion."[25] Many media organisations, including theBBC andThe Guardian, advise against using "the Orkneys" in their style guides,[26][27] although both continue to use the term occasionally.[28][29]
^Thompson (2008) suggests that there was an element of Roman "boasting" involved, given that it was known to them that theOrcades lay at the northern extremity of the British Isles.[49] Similarly, Ritchie describes Tacitus' claims that Rome "conquered" Orkney as "a political puff, for there is no evidence of Roman military presence".[50]
^They were certainly politically organised. Ritchie notes the presence of an Orcadian ruler at the court of a Pictish high king atInverness in 565 AD.[54]
^Sigurd The Mighty's son Gurthorm ruled for a single winter after Sigurd's death and died childless. Rognvald's son Hallad inherited the title but, unable to constrain Danish raids in Orkney, he gave up the earldom and returned to Norway, which according to theOrkneyinga Saga "everyone thought was a huge joke."[62]
^Sigurd the Stout was Thorfinn Skull-splitter's grandson.
^The first recorded bishop wasHenry of Lund (also known as "the Fat") who was appointed sometime prior to 1035.[67] The bishopric appears to have been under the authority of the Archbishops ofYork and ofHamburg-Bremen at different times during the early period and from the mid-twelfth century to 1472 was subordinate to theArchbishop of Nidaros (today'sTrondheim).[68]
^When the sagas were written down Orkney had been Christian for 200 years or more[69] and this conversion tale has been described as "blatantly unhistorical".[70]
^The Scandinavian peoples, relatively recent converts to Christianity, tended to confer martyrdom and sainthood on leading figures of the day who met violent deaths. Magnus and Haakon Paulsson had been co-rulers of Orkney, and although he had a reputation for piety, there is no suggestion that Magnus died for his Christian faith.[72]
^"St Magnus Cathedral still dominates the Kirkwall skyline – a familiar, and comforting sight, to Kirkwallians around the world."[73]
^It is often believed that the princess's death is associated with the village ofSt Margaret's Hope on South Ronaldsay but there is no evidence for this other than the coincidence of the name.[80]
^The notion thatHenry the first Sinclair Earl, voyaged to North America many years beforeChristopher Columbus has gained some currency of late.[22] The idea is however dismissed out of hand by many scholars. For example, Thompson (2008) states "Henry's fictitious trip to America continues to receive a good deal of unfortunate publicity, but it belongs to fantasy rather than real history".[84][85]
^The Maeshowe inscriptions date from the 12th century.[88]
^Margaret's dowry totalled 60,000 Rhenishflorins. Norwegian kings gave an undertaking not to divest theirfiefs, yet Christian pawned Orkney for 50,000 florins surely knowing how hard it would be to redeem the islands. Shortly before the marriage the following year he also pawned Shetland for 8,000 florins. The balance of 2,000 florins may have been paid in cash.[90][91] The contract with Scotland did not stipulate the currency, place or time by which future kings of Norway might exercise a right to reclaim the islands for these fixed sums. Several attempts were made during the subsequent 200 years to redeem them, without success.[92][93]
^For example, at the Fall of Warness the tide can run at 4 m/s (7.8 knots).[123]
^ Coull (2003) quotes the old saying that an Orcadian is a farmer with a boat, in contrast to a Shetlander, who is a fisherman with acroft.[96]
^"The centre offers developers the opportunity to test prototype devices in unrivalled wave and tidal conditions. Wave and tidal energy converters are connected to the national grid via seabed cables running from open-water test berths into an onshore substation. Testing takes place in a wide range of sea and weather conditions, with comprehensive round-the-clock monitoring."[208]
^There is convincing place-name evidence for the Picts' use of Brythonic orP-Celtic, although no written records survive. No certain knowledge of any pre-Pictish language exists anywhere in Scotland, but there may well have been times of significant overlap.[241] For example, the early Scottish Earls spoke Gaelic when the majority of their subjects spoke Norn, and both of these languages were then replaced by Insular Scots. It is therefore possible that the Pictish aristocracy spoke one language and the common folk an unknown precursor such asProto-Celtic.[242]
^Only twoQ-Celtic words exist in the language of modern Orcadians –iper fromeabhar, meaning amidden slurry, andkeero fromcaora – used to describe a small sheep in the North Isles.[244]
^Lamb (2003) counted 60 words "with correlates in Old Norse only" and 500 Scots expressions in common use in the 1950s.[247]
^The word is of uncertain origin and has also been attested in the Lothians and Fife in the 19th century.[249]
^The expression "ferry louper" has a literal meaning of "ferry jumper" i.e. one who has jumped off a ferry as distinct from a native.
^Pope, Alexander (1866).Ancient History of Orkney, Caithness, & the North. Caithness: Peter Reid.Archived from the original on 18 August 2020. Retrieved10 February 2019. (English translation, with translator's notes, of Torfaeus, Thormodus, 1697){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
^Crawford, Barbara E. "Orkney in the Middle Ages" in Omand (2003) p. 64.
^abCrawford, Barbara E. (1966). "The Earldom of Orkney and Lordship of Shetland: A reinterpretation of their pledging to Scotland in 1468–70".Saga Book.17: 157.JSTOR48613121.
^Crawford, Barbara E. "Orkney in the Middle Ages" in Omand (2003) pp. 72–73.
^Marshall, J.E.A., & Hewett, A.J. "Devonian" in Evans, D., Graham C., Armour, A., & Bathurst, P. (eds) (2003)The Millennium Atlas: petroleum geology of the central and northern North Sea.
^abBrown, John Flett "Geology and Landscape" in Omand (2003) pp. 4–5.
^Mykura, W. (with contributions by Flinn, D. & May, F.) (1976)British Regional Geology: Orkney and Shetland. Institute of Geological Sciences. Natural Environment Council.
^Odling, N.W.A. (2000)"Point of Ayre"Archived 8 October 2009 at theWayback Machine. (pdf) "Caledonian Igneous Rocks of Great Britain: Late Silurian and Devonian volcanic rocks of Scotland".Geological Conservation Review17: Chapter 9, p. 2731. JNCC. Retrieved 4 October 2009.
^Chalmers, Jim "Agriculture in Orkney Today" in Omand (2003) p. 127, 133 quoting the Scottish Executive Agricultural Census of 2001 and stating that 80% of the land area is farmed if rough grazing is included.
^Registered Power Zone Annual Report for period 1 April 2006 to 31 March 2007. (2007) Scottish Hydro Electric Power Distribution and Southern Electric Power Distribution.
^"'We are Orcadian first, and Scottish second' many people would tell me during the course of my fieldwork." McClanahan, Angela (2004)The Heart of Neolithic Orkney in its Contemporary Contexts: A case study in heritage management and community valuesHistoric Scotland/University of Manchester, p. 25 (§3.47)[4]Archived 8 December 2011 at theWayback Machine Retrieved 8 January 2010.
^"North Ronaldsay".Sheep Breeds. Seven Sisters Sheep Centre.Archived from the original on 25 April 2009. Retrieved23 April 2009.
^Trichecodon huxlei (Mammalia: Odobenidae) in the Pleistocene of southeastern United States., Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College 122:129–142.
Armit, Ian (2006)Scotland's Hidden History. Stroud. Tempus.ISBN0-7524-3764-X
Beuermann, Ian "Jarla Sǫgur Orkneyja. Status and power of the earls of Orkney according to their sagas" in Steinsland, Gro; Sigurðsson, Jón Viðar; Rekda, Jan Erik and Beuermann, Ian (eds) (2011)Ideology and power in the Viking and Middle Ages: Scandinavia, Iceland, Ireland, Orkney and the Faeroes. The Northern World: North Europe and the Baltic c. 400–1700 A.D. Peoples, Economics and Cultures.52. Leiden.Brill.ISBN978-90-04-20506-2
Baynes, John (1970)The Jacobite Rising of 1715. London. Cassell.ISBN0-304-93565-4
Benvie, Neil (2004)Scotland's Wildlife. London. Aurum Press.ISBN1-85410-978-2
Ballin Smith, B. and Banks, I. (eds) (2002)In the Shadow of the Brochs, the Iron Age in Scotland. Stroud. Tempus.ISBN0-7524-2517-X
Ballin Smith, Beverley; Taylor, Simon; and Williams, Gareth (eds) (2007)West Over Sea: Studies in Scandinavian Sea-borne Expansion and Settlement Before 1300. Brill.ISBN90-04-15893-6
Clarkson, Tim (2008)The Picts: A History. Stroud. The History Press.ISBN978-0-7524-4392-8
Duffy, Christopher (2003)The 45: Bonnie Prince Charlie and the Untold Story of the Jacobite Rising. London. Weidenfeld & Nicolson.ISBN0-304-35525-9
Fraser, James E. (2009)From Caledonia to Pictland: Scotland to 795. Edinburgh University Press.ISBN978-0-7486-1232-1
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