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Inspaceflight, anorbital maneuver (otherwise known as aburn) is the use ofpropulsion systems to change theorbit of aspacecraft. For spacecraft far from Earth, an orbital maneuver is called adeep-space maneuver (DSM).[1]
When a spacecraft is not conducting a maneuver, especially in atransfer orbit, it is said to becoasting.
The Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, or ideal rocket equation, can be useful for analysis of maneuvers by vehicles usingrocket propulsion.[2] A rocket applies acceleration to itself (athrust) by expelling part of its mass at high speed. The rocket itself moves due to the conservation ofmomentum.
The applied change in velocity of each maneuver is referred to asdelta-v ().
The delta-v for all the expected maneuvers are estimated for a mission are summarized in adelta-v budget. With a good approximation of the delta-v budget designers can estimate the propellant required for planned maneuvers.
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Animpulsive maneuver is the mathematical model of a maneuver as an instantaneous change in the spacecraft'svelocity (magnitude and/or direction)[3] as illustrated in figure 1. It is the limit case of a burn to generate a particular amount of delta-v, as the burn time tends to zero.
In the physical world no truly instantaneous change in velocity is possible as this would require an "infinite force" applied during an "infinitely short time" but as a mathematical model it in most cases describes the effect of a maneuver on the orbit very well.
The off-set of the velocity vector after the end of real burn from the velocity vector at the same time resulting from the theoretical impulsive maneuver is only caused by the difference in gravitational force along the two paths (red and black in figure 1) which in general is small.
In the planning phase of space missions designers will first approximate their intended orbital changes using impulsive maneuvers that greatly reduces the complexity of finding the correct orbital transitions.
Applying a low thrust over a longer period of time is referred to as anon-impulsive maneuver. 'Non-impulsive' refers to the momentum changing slowly over a long time, as inelectrically powered spacecraft propulsion, rather than by a short impulse.[4]
Another term isfinite burn, where the word "finite" is used to mean "non-zero", or practically, again: over a longer period.
For a few space missions, such as those including aspace rendezvous, high fidelity models of the trajectories are required to meet the mission goals. Calculating a "finite" burn requires a detailed model of thespacecraft and its thrusters. The most important of details include:mass,center of mass,moment of inertia, thruster positions, thrust vectors, thrust curves,specific impulse, thrustcentroid offsets, and fuel consumption.
Inastronautics, theOberth effect is where the use of arocket engine when travelling at high speed generates much more useful energy than one at low speed. Oberth effect occurs because thepropellant has more usable energy (due to its kinetic energy on top of its chemical potential energy) and it turns out that the vehicle is able to employ this kinetic energy to generate more mechanical power. It is named afterHermann Oberth, theAustro-Hungarian-born,Germanphysicist and a founder of modernrocketry, who apparently first described the effect.[5]
The Oberth effect is used in apowered flyby orOberth maneuver where the application of an impulse, typically from the use of a rocket engine, close to a gravitational body (where thegravity potential is low, and the speed is high) can give much more change inkinetic energy and final speed (i.e. higherspecific energy) than the same impulse applied further from the body for the same initial orbit.
Since the Oberth maneuver happens in a very limited time (while still at low altitude), to generate a high impulse the engine necessarily needs to achieve high thrust (impulse is by definition the time multiplied by thrust). Thus the Oberth effect is far less useful for low-thrust engines, such asion thrusters.
Historically, a lack of understanding of this effect led investigators to conclude that interplanetary travel would require completely impractical amounts of propellant, as without it, enormous amounts of energy are needed.[5]
Inastrodynamics agravity assist maneuver, gravitational slingshot or swing-by is the use of the relative movement andgravity of aplanet or other celestial body to alter the trajectory of a spacecraft, typically in order to save propellant, time, and expense. Gravity assistance can be used toaccelerate,decelerate and/or re-direct the path of a spacecraft.
The "assist" is provided by the motion (orbitalangular momentum) of the gravitating body as it pulls on the spacecraft.[6] The technique was first proposed as a mid-course maneuver in 1961, and used by interplanetary probes fromMariner 10 onwards, including the twoVoyager probes' notable fly-bys of Jupiter and Saturn.
Orbit insertion maneuvers leave a spacecraft in a destination orbit. In contrast, orbit injection maneuvers occur when a spacecraft enters a transfer orbit, e.g.trans-lunar injection (TLI),trans-Mars injection (TMI) andtrans-Earth injection (TEI). These are generally larger than small trajectory correction maneuvers. Insertion, injection and sometimes initiation are used to describe entry into adescent orbit, e.g. thePowered Descent Initiation maneuver used for Apollo lunar landings.
Inorbital mechanics, theHohmann transfer orbit is an elliptical orbit used to transfer between twocircular orbits of different altitudes, in the sameplane.
The orbital maneuver to perform the Hohmann transfer uses two engine impulses which move aspacecraft onto and off the transfer orbit. This maneuver was named afterWalter Hohmann, theGerman scientist who published a description of it in his 1925 bookDie Erreichbarkeit der Himmelskörper (The Accessibility of Celestial Bodies).[7] Hohmann was influenced in part by the German science fiction authorKurd Laßwitz and his 1897 bookTwo Planets.[citation needed]
Inastronautics andaerospace engineering, thebi-elliptic transfer is an orbital maneuver that moves aspacecraft from oneorbit to another and may, in certain situations, require lessdelta-v than aHohmann transfer maneuver.
The bi-elliptic transfer consists of two halfelliptic orbits. From the initial orbit, a delta-v is applied boosting the spacecraft into the first transfer orbit with anapoapsis at some point away from thecentral body. At this point, a second delta-v is applied sending the spacecraft into the second elliptical orbit withperiapsis at the radius of the final desired orbit, where a third delta-v is performed, injecting the spacecraft into the desired orbit.[citation needed]
While they require one more engine burn than a Hohmann transfer and generally requires a greater travel time, some bi-elliptic transfers require a lower amount of total delta-v than a Hohmann transfer when the ratio of final to initialsemi-major axis is 11.94 or greater, depending on the intermediate semi-major axis chosen.[8]
The idea of the bi-elliptical transfer trajectory was first published byAry Sternfeld in 1934.[9]
Alow energy transfer, or low energytrajectory, is a route in space which allows spacecraft to changeorbits using very little fuel.[10][11] These routes work in theEarth-Moon system and also in other systems, such as traveling between thesatellites of Jupiter. The drawback of such trajectories is that they take much longer to complete than higher energy (more fuel) transfers such asHohmann transfer orbits.
Low energy transfer are also known asweak stability boundary trajectories, or ballistic capture trajectories.
Low energy transfers follow special pathways in space, sometimes referred to as theInterplanetary Transport Network. Following these pathways allows for long distances to be traversed for little expenditure ofdelta-v.
Orbital inclination change is an orbital maneuver aimed at changing theinclination of an orbiting body'sorbit. This maneuver is also known as an orbital plane change as the plane of the orbit is tipped. This maneuver requires a change in the orbital velocity vector (delta v) at theorbital nodes (i.e. the point where the initial and desired orbits intersect, the line of orbital nodes is defined by the intersection of the two orbital planes).
In general, inclination changes can require a great deal of delta-v to perform, and most mission planners try to avoid them whenever possible to conserve fuel. This is typically achieved by launching a spacecraft directly into the desired inclination, or as close to it as possible so as to minimize any inclination change required over the duration of the spacecraft life.
Maximum efficiency of inclination change is achieved atapoapsis, (orapogee), where orbital velocity is the lowest. In some cases, it may require less total delta v to raise the spacecraft into a higher orbit, change the orbit plane at the higher apogee, and then lower the spacecraft to its original altitude.[12]
Constant-thrust andconstant-acceleration trajectories involve the spacecraft firing its engine in a prolonged constant burn. In the limiting case where the vehicle acceleration is high compared to the local gravitational acceleration, the spacecraft points straight toward the target (accounting for target motion), and remains accelerating constantly under high thrust until it reaches its target. In this high-thrust case, the trajectory approaches a straight line. If it is required that the spacecraft rendezvous with the target, rather than performing a flyby, then the spacecraft must flip its orientation halfway through the journey, and decelerate the rest of the way.
In the constant-thrust trajectory,[13] the vehicle's acceleration increases during thrusting period, since the fuel use means the vehicle mass decreases. If, instead of constant thrust, the vehicle has constant acceleration, the engine thrust must decrease during the trajectory.
This trajectory requires that the spacecraft maintain a high acceleration for long durations. For interplanetary transfers, days, weeks or months of constant thrusting may be required. As a result, there are no currently available spacecraft propulsion systems capable of using this trajectory. It has been suggested that some forms of nuclear (fission or fusion based) or antimatter powered rockets would be capable of this trajectory.
More practically, this type of maneuver is used in low thrust maneuvers, for example withion engines,Hall-effect thrusters, and others. These types of engines have very high specific impulse (fuel efficiency) but currently are only available with fairly low absolute thrust.
Inastrodynamicsorbit phasing is the adjustment of the time-position of spacecraft along itsorbit, usually described as adjusting the orbiting spacecraft'strue anomaly.
Aspace rendezvous is a sequence of orbital maneuvers during which twospacecraft, one of which is often aspace station, arrive at the sameorbit and approach to a very close distance (e.g. within visual contact). Rendezvous requires a precise match of theorbital velocities of the two spacecraft, allowing them to remain at a constant distance throughorbital station-keeping. Rendezvous is commonly followed bydocking or berthing, procedures which bring the spacecraft into physical contact and create a link between them.
