The orange colour of many fruits and vegetables, such ascarrots,pumpkins,sweet potatoes, andoranges, comes fromcarotenes, a type ofphotosynthetic pigment. These pigments convert the light energy that the plants absorb from the Sun into chemical energy for the plants' growth. Similarly, the hues of autumn leaves are from the same pigment afterchlorophyll is removed.
In Europe and the United States, surveys show that orange is the colour most associated with amusement, the unconventional, extroversion, warmth, fire, energy, activity, danger, taste and aroma, theautumn andAllhallowtide seasons, as well as having long been thenational colour of the Netherlands and theHouse of Orange. It also serves as thepolitical colour of theChristian democracy political ideology and most Christian democratic political parties.[4] In Asia, it is an important symbolic colour in Buddhism and Hinduism.[5]
In nature and culture
The colour orange derives its name from the orange fruit.
Lifeboats inArklow Harbour, Ireland. Orange is chosen for lifeboats and lifesaving jackets because of its high visibility.
In English, the colour orange is named after the appearance of the ripeorange fruit.[6] The word comes from theOld French:orange, from the old term for the fruit,pomme d'orange. The French word, in turn, comes from the Italianarancia,[7][8] based on Arabicنارنج (nāranj), borrowed fromPersianنارنگ (nārang), derived fromSanskritनारङ्ग (nāraṅga), which in turn derives from aDravidian root word (compareநரந்தம்/നാരങ്ങnārandam/nārañja which refers tobitter orange inTamil andMalayalam).[9] The earliest known recorded use oforange as a colour name in English was in 1502, in a description of clothing purchased forMargaret Tudor.[10][11] Another early recorded use was in 1512,[12][13] in awill now filed with thePublic Record Office. By the 17th century, the fruit and its colour were familiar enough that 'orange-coloured' shifted in use to 'orange' as an adjective.[14] The place name "Orange" has a separateetymology and is not related to that of the colour.[15]
Before this word was introduced to the English-speaking world,saffron already existed in the English language.[16]Crog also referred to the saffron colour, so that orange was also referred to asġeolurēad (yellow-red) for reddish orange, orġeolucrog (yellow-saffron) for yellowish orange.[17][18][19] Alternatively, orange things were sometimes described as red (which then had a broader meaning)[14] such asred deer,red hair,the Red Planet androbin redbreast. When orange was infrequently used inheraldry, it was referred to astawny orbrusk.[14]
History and art
Inancient Egypt, andancient India, artists used an orange colour on some of their items. In Egypt, a mineral pigment calledrealgar was used for tomb paintings, as well as for other purposes. Orangecarnelians were significantly used during theIndus Valley Civilisation which was, in turn, obtained by the people ofKutch,Gujarat, India.[20] The colour was also used later by medieval artists for the colouring of manuscripts. Pigments were also made in ancient times from a mineral known asorpiment. Orpiment was an important item of trade in theRoman Empire and was used as a medicine inancient China although it containsarsenic and is highly toxic. It was also used as a fly poison and to poison arrows. Because of its yellow-orange colour, it was also a favourite with alchemists who were searching for a way to make gold, both in China and in the West.
Before the late 15th century, the colour orange existed in Europe, but without the name; it was simply called yellow-red. Portuguese merchants brought the first orange trees to Europe from Asia in the late 15th and early 16th century, along with the Sanskrit wordnāraṅga, which gradually became part of severalEuropean languages:naranja in Spanish,laranja in Portuguese, andorange in English & French. In mid-16th century England, the colour referred to as 'orange' was a reddish-brown, matching the deteriorated appearance of the fruit after a long journey from where it was grown in Portugal or Spain. Improvements in transportation and the introduction of an orange grove inSurrey allowed the fresh fruit to become more familiar in England, and the colour referred to asorange shifted in the 17th century toward its modern understanding.[14]
People in ancient Egyptian wall paintings often were shown with orange or yellow-orange skin, painted with a pigment calledrealgar.
The mineralorpiment was a source of yellow and orange pigments inancient Rome, though it containedarsenic and was highly toxic.
TheHouse of Orange-Nassau was one of the most influential royal houses in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. It originated in 1163 in the tinyPrincipality of Orange, a feudal state of 108 square miles (280 km2) north ofAvignon in southern France. The Principality of Orange took its name not from the fruit, but from a Roman-Celtic settlement on the site which was founded in 36 or 35 BC and was named after the Celtic water godArausio;[21] however, the name may have been slightly altered, and the town associated with the colour, because it was on the route by which quantities of oranges were brought from southern ports such asMarseille to northern France.
The family of the Prince of Orange eventually adopted the name and the colour orange in the 1570s.[22] The colour came to be associated with Protestantism, due to participation by the House of Orange on the Protestant side in theFrench Wars of Religion. One member of the house,William I of Orange, organised theEighty Years' War comprising resistance against Spain, a war that lasted eighty years, until the Netherlands won its independence. The House's arguably most prominent member,William III of Orange, becameKing of England in 1689, after the downfall of the CatholicJames II in theGlorious Revolution.
Due toWilliam III, orange became an important political colour in Britain and Europe. William was a Protestant, and as such, he defended theProtestant minority of Ireland against the majorityRoman Catholic population. As a result, the Protestants of Ireland were known asOrangemen. Orange eventually became one of the colours of theIrish flag, symbolising the Protestant heritage. His orange-white-and-blue rebel flag became the forerunner of The Netherlands' modern flag.[22]
Theflag of South Africa (1928–1994) had an orange stripe, due to the influence ofHouse of Orange and the period when there was a Dutch colony.
The modernflag of New York City takes its colours from the Dutch flag of the 17th century, and has an orange stripe in honour of the House of Orange-Nassau.
In the 18th century, orange was sometimes used to depict the robes ofPomona, the goddess of fruitful abundance; her name came from thepomon, the Latin word for fruit. Oranges themselves became more common in northern Europe, thanks to the 17th-century invention of the heated greenhouse, a building type which became known as anorangerie. The French artistJean-Honoré Fragonard depicted an allegorical figure of inspiration dressed in orange.
In Britain, orange became highly popular with thePre-Raphaelites and with history painters. The flowing red-orange hair ofElizabeth Siddal, a prolific model and the wife of painterDante Gabriel Rossetti, became a symbol of thePre-Raphaelite movement.Lord Leighton, the president of the Royal Academy, producedFlaming June, a painting of a sleeping young woman in a bright orange dress, which won wide acclaim.Albert Joseph Moore painted festive scenes ofRomans wearing orange cloaks brighter than any of the Romans ever likely wore. In the United States,Winslow Homer brightened his palette with vivid oranges.
In France, painters took orange in an entirely different direction. In 1872Claude Monet paintedImpression, Sunrise, a tiny orange sun and some orange light reflected on the clouds and water in the centre of a hazy blue landscape. This painting gave its name to theImpressionist movement.
Orange became an important colour for all the Impressionist painters. They all had studied the recent books on colour theory, and they know that orange placed next to azure blue made both colours much brighter.Auguste Renoir painted boats with stripes of chrome orange paint straight from the tube.Paul Cézanne did not use orange pigment, but produced his own oranges with touches of yellow, red and ochre against a blue background.Toulouse-Lautrec often used oranges in the skirts of dancers and gowns of Parisiennes in the cafes and clubs he portrayed. For him, it was the colour of festivity and amusement.
The Post-Impressionists went even further with orange.Paul Gauguin used oranges as backgrounds, for clothing and skin colour, to fill his pictures with light and exoticism. But no other painter used orange so often and dramatically asVincent van Gogh. who had shared a house with Gauguin inArles for a time. For Van Gogh orange and yellow were the pure sunlight of Provence. He produced his own oranges with mixtures of yellow, ochre and red, and placed them next to slashes of sienna red and bottle green, and below a sky of turbulent blue and violet. He put an orange moon and stars in a cobalt blue sky. He wrote to his brother Theo of searching for oppositions of blue with orange, of red with green, of yellow with violet, searching for broken colours and neutral colours to harmonise the brutality of extremes, trying to make the colours intense, and not a harmony of greys.[23]
In the 20th and 21st centuries, the colour orange had highly varied associations, both positive and negative.
The high visibility of orange made it a popular colour for certain kinds of clothing and equipment. DuringWorld War II, US Navy pilots in the Pacific began to wear orange inflatable life jackets, which could be spotted by search and rescue planes. After the war, these jackets became common on both civilian and naval vessels of all sizes, and on aircraft flown over water. Orange is also widely worn (to avoid being hit) by workers on highways and by cyclists.
Aherbicide calledAgent Orange was widely sprayed from aircraft by theRoyal Air Force during theMalayan Emergency and theUS Air Force during theVietnam War to remove the forest and jungle cover beneath which enemy combatants were believed to be hiding, and to expose their supply routes. The chemical was not actually orange, but took its name from the colour of the steel drums in which it was stored. Agent Orange was toxic, and was later linked to birth defects and other health problems.
AUS Navy pilot during World War II wearing an orange inflatable life jacket
Orange also had and continues to have a political dimension. Orange serves as the colour ofChristian democratic political ideology, which is based onCatholic social teaching andNeo-Calvinist theology; Christian democratic political parties came to prominence in Europe and the Americas after World War II.[24][4]
In Ukraine in November–December 2004, it became the colour of theOrange Revolution, a popular movement which carried activist and reformerViktor Yushchenko into the presidency.[25] In parts of the world, especiallyNorthern Ireland, the colour is associated with theOrange Order, aProtestant fraternal organisation and relatedly, Orangemen, marches and other social and political activities, with the colour orange being associated with Protestantism similar to the Netherlands.
Flag of theOrange Order, an international Protestant fraternal organisation
In traditionalcolour theory, orange is a range of colours between red and yellow
Inoptics, orange is the colour seen by the eye when looking at light with a wavelength between approximately 585–620nm. It has ahue of 30° inHSV colour space. Isaac Newton'sOpticks distinguished between pure orange light and mixtures of red and yellow light by noting that mixtures could be separated using a prism.[26]
In the traditional colour wheel used by painters, orange is the range of colours between red and yellow, and painters can obtain orange simply by mixing red and yellow in various proportions; however these colours are never as vivid as a pure orange pigment. In theRGB colour model (the system used to display colours on a television or computer screen), orange is generated by combining high intensity red light with a lower intensity green light, with the blue light turned off entirely. Orange is atertiary colour which is numerically halfway betweengamma-compressed red and yellow, as can be seen in theRGB colour wheel.
Regarding painting, blue is the complementary colour to orange. As many painters of the 19th century discovered, blue and orange reinforce each other. The painter Vincent van Gogh wrote to his brother Theo that in his paintings, he was trying to reveal "the oppositions of blue with orange, of red with green, of yellow with violet... trying to make the colours intense and not a harmony of grey".[27] In another letter he wrote simply, "There is no orange without blue."[28] Van Gogh,Pierre-Auguste Renoir and many otherImpressionist andPost-Impressionist painters frequently placed orange against azure or cobalt blue, to make both colours appear brighter.
The actual complement of orange isazure – a colour that is one quarter of the way between blue and green on the colour spectrum. The actual complementary colour of true blue is yellow. Orange pigments are largely in theochre orcadmium families, and absorb mostly greenish-blue light.
Pigments and dyes
A sample oforpiment from an arsenic mine insouthern Russia. Orpiment has been used to make orange pigment since ancient times in ancient Egypt, Europe and China. Romans used the mineral for trade.
Realgar, an arsenic sulphide mineral 1.5-2.5 Mohs hardness, is highly toxic. It was used since ancient times until the 19th century to make red-orange pigment, as a poison, and a medicine.
Minium andmassicot are bright yellow and orange pigments made since ancient times by heating lead oxide and its variants. Minium was used in theByzantine Empire for making the red-orange colour on illuminated manuscripts, while massicot was used by ancient Egyptian scribes and in the Middle Ages. Both substances are toxic, and were replaced in the beginning of the 20th century by chrome orange and cadmium orange.[29]
Cadmium orange is a synthetic pigment made fromcadmium sulphide. It is a by-product of mining forzinc, but also occurs rarely in nature in the mineralgreenockite. It is usually made by replacing some of thesulphur withselenium, which results in an expensive but deep and lasting colour.Selenium was discovered in 1817, but the pigment was not made commercially until 1910.[30]
Quinacridone orange is a synthetic organic pigment first identified in 1896 and manufactured in 1935. It makes a vivid and solid orange.
Diketopyrrolopyrrole orange or DPP orange is a synthetic organic pigment first commercialised in 1986. It is sold under various commercial names, such as translucent orange. It makes an extremely bright and lasting orange, and is widely used to colour plastics and fibres, as well as in paints.[31]
Orange natural objects
The orange colour ofcarrots,pumpkins,sweet potatoes,oranges, and many other fruits and vegetables comes fromcarotenes, a type ofphotosynthetic pigment. These pigments convert the light energy that the plants absorb from the sun into chemical energy for the plants' growth. The carotenes themselves take their name from the carrot.[32]Autumn leaves also get their orange colour from carotenes. When the weather turns cold and production of greenchlorophyll stops, the orange colour remains.
Before the 18th century, carrots from Asia were usually purple, while those in Europe were either white or red. Dutch farmers bred a variety that was orange; according to some sources, as a tribute to thestadtholder ofHolland andZeeland,William of Orange.[33] The long orange Dutch carrot, first described in 1721, is the ancestor of the orange horn carrot, one of the most common types found in supermarkets today. It takes its name from the town ofHoorn, in the Netherlands.
Carrots, pumpkins and other vegetables get their orange colour fromcarotenes, a variety ofphotosynthetic pigment, which takes its own name from the carrot.
Orange is traditionally associated with theautumn season, with the harvest and autumn leaves. The flowers, like orange fruits and vegetables and autumn leaves, get their colour from the photosynthetic pigments calledcarotenes.
Akoi, a domesticatedcarp bred in Japan for its ornamental value in gardens and ponds
AnArion rufus, or European red slug, lives in northern Europe, especially Denmark, and can be eighteen centimetres long.
Foods
Orange is a very common colour of fruits, vegetables, spices, and other foods in many different cultures. As a result, orange is the colour most often associated in western culture with taste and aroma.[34] Orange foods include peaches,apricots,mangoes,carrots,shrimp,salmon roe, and many other foods. Orange colour is provided byspices such aspaprika,saffron andcurry powder. In the United States, withHalloween on 31 October, and in North America withThanksgiving in October (Canada) and November (US) orange is associated with the harvest colour, and also is the colour of the carved pumpkins, or jack-o-lanterns, used to celebrate the holiday.
Nacho cheeseDoritos, like many popular snack foods, containYellow 6,Yellow 5 andRed 40 synthetic food colour.Wrapped slices ofAmerican cheese are now often coloured withannatto, a natural food colour made from the seeds of theachiote tree.
People associate certain colours with certainflavours, and the colour of food can influence the perceived flavour in anything fromcandy towine.[35] Since orange is popularly associated with good flavour, many companies add orangefood colouring to improve the appearance of their packaged foods. Orange pigments and dyes, synthetic or natural, are added to many orange sodas and juices, cheeses (particularlycheddar cheese,Gloucester cheese, andAmerican cheese); snack foods, butter and margarine; breakfast cereals, ice cream,yoghurt, jam and candy. It is also often added to children's medicine, and tochicken feed to make theegg yolks more orange.
The United States Government and theEuropean Union certify a small number of synthetic chemical colourings to be used in food. These are usuallyaromatic hydrocarbons, orazo dyes, made from petroleum. The most common ones are:
Tartrazine, also known as Yellow 5 andE102. A dye used in soft drinks such asMountain Dew,Kool-Aid, chewing gum, popcorn, breakfast cereals, cosmetics, shampoos, eyeshadow, blush, and lipstick.
Citrus Red 2 is certified only to colour orange peels.
Because many consumers are worried about possible health consequences of synthetic dyes, some companies are beginning to use natural food colours. Since these food colours are natural, they do not require any certification from the Food and Drug Administration. The most popular natural food colours are:
Annatto, made from the seeds of theachiote tree. Annatto containscarotenoids, the same ingredient that gives carrots and other vegetables their orange colour. Annatto has been used to dye certain cheeses in Britain, particularlyGloucester cheese, since the 16th century. It is now commonly used to colour American cheese, snack foods, breakfast cereal, butter, and margarine. It is used as a body paint by native populations in Central and South America. In India, women often put it, under the namesindūra, on their hairline to indicate that they are married.
Turmeric is a common spice in the Indian subcontinent, Persia and the Mideast. It contains the pigments calledcurcuminoids, widely used as a dye for the robes of Buddhist monks. It is also often used in curry powders and to give flavour tomustard. It is now being used more frequently in Europe and the US to give an orange colour to canned beverages, ice cream, yogurt, popcorn and breakfast cereal. The food colour is usually listed as E100.
Paprika oleoresin contains natural carotenoids, and is made fromchilli peppers. It is used to colour cheese, orange juice, spice mixtures and packaged sauces. It is also fed to chickens to make theiregg yolks more orange.
In Confucianism, the religion and philosophy of ancient China, orange was the colour of transformation. In China and India, the colour took its name not from the orange fruit, but from saffron, the finest and most expensive dye in Asia. According to Confucianism, existence was governed by the interaction of the male active principle, theyang, and the female passive principle, theyin. Yellow was the colour of perfection and nobility; red was the colour of happiness and power. Yellow and red were compared to light and fire, spirituality and sensuality, seemingly opposite but really complementary. Out of the interaction between the two came orange, the colour of transformation.[36]
Hinduism and Buddhism
A wide variety of colours, ranging from a slightly orange yellow to a deep orange red, all simply calledsaffron, are closely associated with Hinduism and Buddhism, and are commonly worn by monks and holy men across Asia.
In Hinduism, the divinityKrishna is commonly portrayed dressed in yellow or yellow orange. Yellow and saffron are also the colours worn bysadhu, or wandering pious men in India.
In Buddhism, orange (or more precisely saffron) was the colour of illumination, the highest state of perfection.[37] The saffron colours of robes to be worn by monks were defined by the Buddhist texts. The robe and its colour is a sign of renunciation of the outside world and commitment to the order. The candidate monk, with his master, first appears before the monks of the monastery in his own clothes, with his new robe under his arm and asks to enter the order. He then takes his vows, puts on the robes, and with his begging bowl, goes out to the world. Thereafter, he spends his mornings begging and his afternoons in contemplation and study, either in a forest, garden, or in the monastery.[38]
According to Buddhist scriptures and commentaries, the robe dye is allowed to be obtained from six kinds of substances: roots and tubers, plants, bark, leaves, flowers and fruits. The robes should also be boiled in water for a long time to get the correctly sober colour. Saffron and ochre, usually made with dye from thecurcuma longa plant or the heartwood of thejackfruit tree, are the most common colours. The so-called forest monks usually wear ochre robes and city monks saffron, though this is not an official rule.[39]
The colour of robes also varies somewhat among the differentvehicles (schools) of Buddhism, and by country, depending on their doctrines and the dyes available. The monks of the strictVajrayana, orTantric Buddhism, practised in Tibet, wear the most colourful robes of saffron and red. The monks ofMahayana Buddhism, practised mainly in Japan, China and Korea, wear lighter yellow or saffron, often with white or black. Monks ofTheravada Buddhism, practised in Southeast Asia, usually wear ochre or saffron colour. Monks of the forest tradition in Thailand and other parts of Southeast Asia wear robes of a brownish ochre, dyed from the wood of thejackfruit tree.[38][40]
Young Thai Buddhist monks
A Hindu sadhu, or ascetic wandering monk or pious man, inKathmandu,Nepal
In Europe and America orange and yellow are the colours most associated with amusement, frivolity and entertainment. In this regard, orange is the exact opposite of its complementary colour, blue, the colour of calm and reflection. Mythological paintings traditionally showedBacchus (known inGreek mythology asDionysus), the god of wine, ritual madness and ecstasy, dressed in orange. Clowns have long worn orange wigs.Toulouse-Lautrec used a palette of yellow, black and orange in his posters of Paris cafes and theatres, andHenri Matisse used an orange, yellow and red palette in his painting, theJoy of Living.[41]
Orange is the colour most easily seen in dim light or against the water, making it, particularly the shade known assafety orange, the colour of choice for life rafts, life jackets orbuoys. Highway temporary signs about construction or detours in the United States are orange, because of its visibility and its association with danger.
It is worn by people wanting to be seen, including highway workers and lifeguards. Prisoners are also sometimes dressed in orange clothing to make them easier to see during an escape. Lifeguards on the beaches ofLos Angeles County, both real and in television series, wear orange swimsuits to make them stand out. Orange astronaut suits have the highest visibility in space, or against blue sea. An aircraft's two types of "black box", orflight data recorder andcockpit voice recorder, are actually bright orange, so they can be found more easily. In some cars,connectors related to safety systems, such as the airbag, may be coloured orange.
Orange is sometimes used, like red and yellow, as a colour warning of possible danger or calling for caution. A skull against an orange background means a toxic substance or poison.
Flag of India (1947). The top-most colour in the flag is calledbhagwa or officially,saffron. (However, to some people, it is indistinguishable from orange.) It was originally chosen byMohandas Karamchand Gandhi, and originally stood for the Hindu community in India, then for the sacrifice of the people.[46]
Flag of Côte d'Ivoire (1959). The orange stands for thesavannah, the fertile land in the north of the country, opposed to the green of the forests in the south.
Flag of Niger (1960). The orange is said to represent theSahara desert in the north, and the orange disk symbolises either the sun or independence.
Flag of Zambia (1964/1996). The orange is said to represent the land's natural resources and mineral wealth.
Flag of Bhutan (1969). The orange background represents theBuddhist spiritual tradition.
Flag of Armenia (1990). According to the Armenian Constitution, the orange (also called apricot colour) represents the creativity and hard-working nature of the Armenian people.
Geography
Orange is the national colour of the Netherlands. The royal family, theHouse of Orange-Nassau, derives its name in part from its former holding, the principality ofOrange. (The titlePrince of Orange is still used for the Dutch heir apparent.)
The Republic of theOrange Free State (Dutch:Oranje-Vrijstaat) was an independentBoer republic in southern Africa during the second half of the 19th century, and later aBritish colony and a province of theUnion of South Africa. It is the historical precursor to the present-dayFree State province. Extending between the Orange andVaal river, its borders were determined by the United Kingdom in 1848 when the region was proclaimed as the Orange River Sovereignty, with a seat of a British Resident inBloemfontein.
Oranjemund (Dutch for 'Mouth of Oranje') is a town situated in the extreme southwest of Namibia, on the northern bank of theOrange River mouth.
Contemporary political and social movements
Because of its symbolic meaning as the orange colour of activity, orange is often used as the colour of political and social movements.
The NDP's unexpected sweep of seats in Quebec and its consequent rise to official opposition in the2011 federal election became known as the "Orange Wave" (la vague orange) or "Orange Crush".
In Paganism, orange represents energy, attraction, vitality, and stimulation. It can help with adapting, encouragement, and power.[49]
Buddhist monks in theTheravada tradition typically wear saffron robes. Although occasionally maroon, the colour normally worn byVajrayana Buddhist monks is orange.
Metaphysics and occultism
The "New Age Prophetess",Alice Bailey, in her system called theSeven Rays which classifies humans into seven different metaphysicalpsychological types, the "fifth ray" of "Concrete Science" is represented by the colour orange. People who have this metaphysical psychological type are said to be "on the Orange Ray".[50]
Inalchemy, orpiment – a contraction of the Latin word for gold (aurum) and colour (pigmentum) – was believed to be a key ingredient in the creation of thePhilosopher's Stone.[22]
Military
In theUnited States Army, orange has traditionally been associated with thedragoons, the mounted infantry units which eventually became theUS Cavalry. The1st Cavalry Regiment was founded in 1833 as the United States Dragoons. The modern coat of arms of the 1st Cavalry features the colour orange and orange-yellow shade called dragoon yellow, the colours of the early US dragoon regiments.[52]TheUS Signal Corps, founded at the beginning of theAmerican Civil War, adopted orange and white as its official colours in 1872. Orange was adopted because it was the colour of a signal fire, historically used at night while smoke was used during the day, to communicate with distant army units.
The coat of arms of the 1st Cavalry regiment, founded as adragoon regiment, features a gold dragon and an orange shield, the traditional colours of the dragoons.
The shoulder sleeve insignia of the 1st Signal Command of theUS Signal Corps. Orange, the colour of traditional signal fires, and white are the official colours of the Signal Corps.
Prior to and during theNapoleonic Wars a pale shade of orange known asaurore ("dawn") was adopted as thefacing colour of several cavalry regiments in the French army. The colour resembled that of the early rising sun.
In theRoyal Netherlands Air Force, aircraft may have aroundel with an orange dot in the middle, surrounded by three circular sectors in red, white, and blue.
^abcReuchamps, Min (17 December 2014).Minority Nations in Multinational Federations: A Comparative Study of Quebec and Wallonia. Routledge. p. 140.ISBN9781317634720.
^Eva Heller,Psychologie de la couleur: effets et symboliques, pp. 149–158
^Correspondance of Vincent van Gogh, No. 459A, cited in John Gage,Couleur et Culture: Usages et significations de la couleur de l'Antiquité à l'abstraction.
^Eva Heller,Psychologie de la couleur: effets et symboliques, p. 152.
^Isabelle Roelofs and Fabien Petillion,La couleur expliquée aux artistes, pp. 46–47.
^Isabelle Roelofs and Fabien Petillion,La couleur expliquée aux artistes, p. 121.
^Isabelle Roelofs and Fabien Petillion,La couleur expliquée aux artistes, pp. 66–67
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