Opuntia, commonly called theprickly pear cactus, is agenus offlowering plants in thecactusfamily Cactaceae, many known for their flavorful fruit and showy flowers.[1] Cacti are native to the Americas, and are well adapted toarid climates; however, they are still vulnerable to alterations in precipitation and temperature driven by climate change.[2] The plant has been introduced to Australia, southern Europe, theMiddle East, and parts of Africa.
Prickly pear alone is also used to refer to the fruit, but may also be used for the plant itself; in addition, other names given to the plant and its specific parts includetuna (fruit),sabra,sabbar,nopal (pads, pluralnopales, from theNahuatl wordnōpalli), nostle (fruit) from the Nahuatl wordnōchtli, and paddle cactus. The genus is named for theAncient Greek city ofOpus.[3] The fruit and leaves are edible. The most commonculinary species is the "Barbary fig" (Opuntia ficus-indica).
In places where they have been introduced outside their native range, some species in the genusOpuntia behave as aggressiveinvasive species.[4]
O. ficus-indica is a large, trunk-forming, segmented cactus that may grow to 5–7 metres (16–23 feet) with a crown of over 3 m (10 ft) in diameter and a trunk diameter of 1 m (1 yard).[1]Cladodes (large pads) are green to blue-green, bearing few spines up to 2.5 centimetres (1 inch) or may be spineless.[1] Prickly pears typically grow with flat, rounded cladodes (also called platyclades) containing large, smooth, fixed spines and small, hairlike prickles calledglochids that readily adhere to skin or hair, then detach from the plant. The flowers are typically large, axillary, solitary, bisexual, andepigynous, with aperianth consisting of distinct, spirally arrangedtepals and ahypanthium. Thestamens are numerous and in spiral or whorled clusters, and thegynoecium has numerous inferior ovaries per carpel. Placentation is parietal, and the fruit is a berry with arillate seeds. Prickly pear species can vary greatly in habit; most are shrubs, but some, such asO. galapageia of the Galápagos, are trees.
WhenCarl Linnaeus publishedSpecies Plantarum in 1753 – the starting point for modern botanical nomenclature – he placed all the species of cactus known to him in one genus,Cactus. In 1754, the Scottish botanistPhilip Miller divided them into several genera, includingOpuntia. He distinguished the genus largely on the form of its flowers and fruits.[5]
Considerable variation of taxonomy occurs withinOpuntia species, resulting in names being created for variants or subtypes within a species, and use ofDNA sequencing to define and isolate various species.[1]
Opuntiahybridizes readily between species.[6] This can make classification difficult, yielding a reticulate phylogeny where different species come together in hybridization.[7]Opuntia also has a tendency forpolyploidy. The ancestral diploid state was 2n=22, but many species are hexaploid (6n = 66) or octaploid (8n = 88).[7]
Chollas, now recognized to belong to the distinct genusCylindropuntia, are distinguished by having cylindrical, rather than flattened, stem segments with large barbed spines. The stem joints of several species, notably thejumping cholla (C. fulgida), are very brittle on young stems, readily breaking off when the barbed spines stick to clothing or animal fur as a method ofvegetative reproduction. The barbed spines can remain embedded in the skin, causing discomfort and sometimes injury.
Like most true cactus species, prickly pears are native only to theAmericas. Through human action, they have since been introduced to many other areas of the world.[1][7] Prickly pear species are found in abundance inMexico, especially in the central and western regions, and in theCaribbean islands (West Indies). In theUnited States, prickly pears are native to many areas of the arid, semi-arid, and drought-proneWestern andSouth Central United States, including the lower elevations of theRocky Mountains and southernGreat Plains, where species such asO. phaeacantha andO. polyacantha have become dominant, and to the desert Southwest, where several types are endemic. Prickly pear cactus is also native to sandy coastal beach scrub environments of theEast Coast fromFlorida to southernConnecticut, whereO. humifusa,O. stricta, andO. pusilla, are found from the East Coast south into theCaribbean and theBahamas. Additionally, the eastern prickly pear is native to the midwestern "sand prairies" near major river systems, such as the Mississippi, Illinois, and Ohio rivers.[11] The plant also occurs naturally in hilly areas of southernIllinois, and sandy or rocky areas of northern Illinois.[12]
Opuntia species are the most cold-tolerant of the lowland cacti, extending into western and southernCanada. Onesubspecies,O. fragilis var.fragilis, has been found growing along theBeatton River in north-easternBritish Columbia, southwest ofCecil Lake at 56° 17' N latitude and 120° 39' W longitude.[13] Others are seen in the Kleskun Hills Natural Area of north-westAlberta at 55° 15' 30'' N latitude and 118° 30' 36'' W longitude.[14]
Prickly pears produce a fruit known astuna, commonly eaten inMexico and in theMediterranean region, which is also used to makeaguas frescas.[1] The fruit can be red, wine-red, green, or yellow-orange. In theGalápagos Islands, the Galápagos prickly pear,O. galapageia, has previously been treated as a number of different species, but is now only divided into varieties and subvarieties.[15] Most of these are confined to one or a few islands, so they have been described as "an excellent example ofadaptive radiation".[16] On the whole, islands with tall, trunked varieties are also the home of giant tortoises, whereas islands lacking tortoises have low or prostrate forms ofOpuntia. Prickly pears are a prime source of food for the common giant tortoises in the Galápagos Islands, so they are important in the food web.
Natural distribution of the plant occurs via consumption and associatedseed dispersal by many animals, includingantelopes, nonhumanprimates,elephants, birds, and humans.[1] When ingested by elephants, the sharp components of the plant cause harm to the mouth, stomach, and intestines.[17]
Prickly pears (mostlyO. stricta) were originally imported into Europe during the 16th century.[1] They are now found in the Mediterranean region ofNorthern Africa, especially inAlgeria,Morocco andTunisia, where they grow all over the countryside, and in parts ofSouthern Europe, especiallySpain, where they can be found in the east, south-east, and south of the country, and also inMalta, where they grow all over the islands, and in southernItaly, especially in Sicily and Sardinia. They can be found in enormous numbers in parts ofSouth Africa, where they were introduced from South America.[1]
The first introduction of prickly pears intoAustralia is ascribed to the founding governor of the New South Wales colony,Arthur Phillip, and the earliest European colonists, in 1788. Brought fromBrazil toSydney, they were most likelyO. monacantha. That variety did not spread beyond the east coast. However, a number of other types of prickly pear were introduced to Australian gardens in the mid-19th century. The cactus was also used as agricultural fencing and a feedstock for animals in times of drought,[18][19] as well as in an attempt to establish acochineal dye industry.
The cactus became a widespreadinvasive weed in the dry interior climate west of theGreat Dividing Range, in New South Wales andQueensland,[18] eventually converting 260,000 square kilometres (101,000 sq mi) of farming land into an impenetrable green jungle of prickly pears in places 6 m (20 ft) high. Scores of farmers were driven off their land by what they called the "green hell", and their abandoned homes were crushed under the cactus growth, which advanced at a rate of 400,000 hectares (1 million acres) per year.[19]
In 1919, theAustralian federal government established the Commonwealth Prickly Pear Board to coordinate efforts with state governments to eradicate the weed. Early attempts, comprising mechanical removal and poisonous chemicals failed. As a last resort, biological control was attempted.[19] In 1925, theCactoblastis cactorummoth was introduced fromSouth America, and its larvae rapidly began to control the infestation.Alan Dodd, the son of the noted entomologistFrederick Parkhurst Dodd, was a leading official in combating the prickly pear. A memorial hall inBoonarga, Queensland, commemorates the efforts of the moth.[19] The release of cochineal insects, which eat the cactus and simultaneously kill the plant, has also proven an effective measure for combating its spread.[20]
InSouth Africa, many species of Opuntia are considered highly invasive includingO. aurantiaca,O. elata,O. engelmannii,O. ficus-indica,O. humifusa,O. leucotricha,O. microdasys,O. monacantha,O. pubescens,O. robusta,O. salmiana,O. spinulifera,O. stricta andO. tomentosa. These species are classified as Category 1 invaders, and targeted for national eradication; most activities with regards to the species are prohibited (such as importing, propagating, introducing, translocating or trading).[3] It was also found that invasive Opuntia species have adverse effects on the beetle population in theKruger National Park, and widespread invasions alter soil characteristics.[4]
O. ficus-indica thrives in regions with mild winters having a prolonged dry spell followed by hot summers with occasional rain and relatively low humidity.[1] A mean annual rainfall of 350–500 millimetres (14–19+1⁄2 in) provides good growth rates.[1]O. ficus-indica proliferates in various soils ranging from subacid to subalkaline, with clay content not exceeding 15–20% and the soil well drained.[1] The shallow root system enables the plant to grow in shallow, loose soils, such as on mountain slopes.[1]Opuntia spreads into large clonal colonies, which contribute to its being considered anoxious weed in some places.[1][6]
Animals that eatOpuntia include theprickly pear island snail andCyclura rock iguanas. The fruit are relished by many arid-land animals, chiefly birds, which thus help distribute the seeds.Opuntiapathogens include the sac fungusColletotrichum coccodes and Sammons' Opuntia virus. The ant,Crematogaster opuntiae, and spider,Theridion opuntia, are named because of their association with the prickly pear cactus.
Close-up of prickly pear fruit: Apart from the large spines, the glochids (the fine prickles, or bristles) may dislodge and cause skin or eye irritation.
The fruit of prickly pears, commonly called cactus fruit, cactus fig, Indian fig (meaning "Native American", not "ofIndia"),nopales[26] ortuna in Spanish,[27] is edible, although it must be peeled carefully to remove the small spines on the outer skin before consumption.[28] If the outer layer is not properly removed,glochids can be ingested, causing discomfort of the throat, lips, and tongue, as the small spines are easily lodged in the skin.Native Americans like theTequesta would roll the fruit around in a suitable medium (e.g.grit) to "sand" off the glochids. Alternatively, rotating the fruit in the flame of a campfire or torch has been used to remove the glochids. Today,parthenocarpic (seedless)cultivars are also available. The seeds can be used for flour.[29]
In Mexico, prickly pears are often used to make appetizers, soups, salads, entrees, vegetable dishes, breads, desserts, beverages,candy,jelly, and drinks.[26][30][31] The youngstem segments, usually called pads ornopales, are also edible in most species ofOpuntia.[26][28] They are commonly used inMexican cuisine in dishes such ashuevos con nopales (eggs with nopal), ortacos de nopales.Nopales are also an important ingredient inNew Mexican cuisine.[26] In 2009 it was introduced as a cheaper alternative to corn for the production of tortillas and other corn products.[32] They can also be pickled.[29]
Opuntia ficus-indica has been introduced to Europe, and flourishes in areas with a suitable climate, such as the south ofFrance and southernItaly: InSicily, they are referred to asfichi d'India (Italian literal translation of Indian fig) orficurinia (Sicilian language literal translation of Indian fig). InSardinia, they are calledfigumorisca ("Moorish figs"), the same denomination they receive along theCatalan-speaking regions of the Western Mediterranean,figa de moro. They can be found also in theStruma River inBulgaria, in southernPortugal andMadeira (where they are calledtabaibo,figo tuno, or "Indian figs"), inAndalusia,Spain (where they are known ashigos chumbos).InGreece, it grows in such places as thePeloponnese region,Ionian Islands, orCrete, and its figs are known asfrangosyka (Frankish, i.e. Western European, figs) orpavlosyka ("Paul's figs"), depending on the region. InAlbania, they are calledfiq deti translated as "sea figs", and are present in the south-west shore. The figs are also grown inCyprus, where they are known aspapoutsósyka orbabutsa ("shoe figs").
The prickly pear also grows widely on the islands of Malta, where it is enjoyed by the Maltese as a typical summer fruit (known asbajtar tax-xewk, literally "spiny figs"), as well as being used to make the popular liqueur known asbajtra.[33] The prickly pear is so commonly found in the Maltese islands, it is often used as a dividing wall between many of Malta's characteristic terraced fields in place of the usual rubble walls.
The prickly pear was introduced toEritrea during the period of Italian colonisation between 1890 and 1940. It is locally known there asbeles and is abundant during the late summer and early autumn (late July through September). Thebeles from the holy monastery ofDebre Bizen is said to be particularly sweet and juicy.
InMorocco,Tunisia,Libya,Saudi Arabia,Jordan, and other parts ofNorth Africa and theMiddle East, prickly pears of the yellow and orange varieties are grown by the side of farms, beside railway tracks and other otherwise noncultivable land. It is sold in summer by street vendors, and is considered a refreshing fruit for that season.
Tungi is the localSt. Helenian name for cactus pears. The plants (Indian fig opuntia) were originally brought to the island by the colonial ivory traders from East Africa in the 1850s.Tungi cactus now grows wild in the dry coastal regions of the island. Three principal cultivars oftungi grow on the island: the "English" with yellow fruit; the "Madeira" with large red fruit; and the small, firm "spiny red". Tungi also gives its name to a local Spirit distilled at The St Helena distillery at Alarm Forest, the most remote distillery in the world, made entirely from the opuntia cactus.
Cactus pear is being promoted and researched byICARDA forIndia,Jordan, andPakistan especially.[34] It is an underappreciated crop in these countries and has undergone recent expansion in cultivated area.[34] In some particularly promising areas of India and Pakistan it has given a 30% increase inmilk yield /hectare (/acre).[34]
Prior to modern medicine, Native Americans and Mexicans primarily usedOpuntia as a coagulant for open wounds, using the pulp of the stem either by splitting the stem or scraping out the pulp.[36]
Traditional "Zapotec nest" farming of the cochineal scale insect onO. ficus-indica,Oaxaca
Dactylopius coccus is ascale insect from whichcochineal dye is derived.D. coccus itself is native to tropical and subtropicalSouth America andMexico. This insect, a primarilysessileparasite, lives oncacti from the genusOpuntia, feeding on moisture and nutrients in the cactus sap. The insect producescarminic acid, which deters predation by other insects. The carminic acid can be extracted from the insect's body and eggs to make the red dye.
Cochineal is used primarily as aredfood colouring and forcosmetics.[26] The cochineal dye was used by theAztec andMaya peoples of Central and North America, and by theInca in South America. Produced almost exclusively inOaxaca, Mexico, by indigenous producers, cochineal became Mexico's second-most valued export after silver.[37] The dyestuff was consumed throughout Europe, and was so highly valued, its price was regularly quoted on the London and Amsterdam Commodity Exchanges.
The biggest producers of cochineal arePeru, theCanary Islands, andChile. Current health concerns over artificial food additives have renewed the popularity of cochineal dyes, and the increased demand is making cultivation for insect farming an attractive opportunity in other regions, such as in Mexico, where cochineal production had declined again owing to the numerous natural enemies of the scale insect.[38]
Apart from cochineal, the red dyebetanin can be extracted from someOpuntia plants themselves.[26] TheNavajo people have traditionally produced a reddish dye from the fruit of the prickly pear cactus, used in dyeing woolen yarns.[citation needed]
Cactus is used as a fodder crop for animals in arid and dryland regions.[39] Some farmers prepare it with afermentation method to remove the spines and increase digestibility.[40]
The prickly pear cactus has been used for centuries both as a food source and a natural fence that keeps in livestock and marks the boundaries of family lands.[26] They are resilient and often grow back following removal.[26]
The emblem of Malta from 1975 to 1988
The 1975–1988 version of theemblem of Malta also featured a prickly pear, along with atraditionaldgħajsa, a shovel and pitchfork, and the rising sun.[43]
The prickly pear is the official plant of Texas by legislation from 1995.[44]
The cactus lends its name to a song by British jazz/classical groupPortico Quartet.[citation needed] The song "My Rival", on the albumGaucho by the American jazz-pop groupSteely Dan begins with the words, "The wind was driving in my face/The smell of prickly pear."[45]
In the fall of 1961, Cuba had its troops plant a 13-kilometre (8 mi) barrier ofOpuntia cactus along the northeastern section of the 28-kilometre (17 mi) fence surrounding theGuantanamo Bay Naval Base to stop Cubans from escaping Cuba to take refuge in the United States.[46] This was dubbed the "Cactus Curtain", an allusion toEurope'sIron Curtain[47] and theBamboo Curtain inEast Asia.
Uruguayan-born footballerBruno Fornaroli is nicknamed prickly pear due to his sometimes spiky hairstyles.[48]
The coat of arms of Mexico depicts a Mexican goldeneagle, perched upon anOpuntiacactus, holding arattlesnake. According to the official history of Mexico, the coat of arms is inspired by anAztec legend regarding the founding ofTenochtitlan. The Aztecs, then a nomadic tribe, were wandering throughout Mexico in search of a divine sign to indicate the precise spot upon which they were to build their capital. Their godHuitzilopochtli had commanded them to find aneagle devouring a snake, perched atop a cactus that grew on a rock submerged in a lake. After 200 years of wandering, they found the promised sign on a small island in the swampyLake Texcoco. There they founded their new capital,Tenochtitlan. The cactus (O. ficus-indica;Nahuatl:tenochtli), full of fruits, is the symbol for the island of Tenochtitlan.
The cactus fig is calledtzabar inHebrew (Hebrew:צבר). This cactus is also the origin of the termsabra used to describe anyJew born in Israel. The allusion is to a thorny, spiky skin on the outside, but a soft, sweet interior, suggesting, though theIsraeli sabras are rough on the outside, they are sweet and sensitive once one gets to know them.[49][50] This term is derived from the related Arabic word for this cactus صبارṣubbār, where the related termsabr also translates to "patience" or "tenacity".[51]
The prickly pear is also considered anational symbol of Palestine, having been grown acrosshistoric Palestine for centuries, traditionally being used to mark out land boundaries. The plant is seen by Palestinians as representing qualities of resilience and patience, as represented by the Palestinian proverbsaber as-sabbar ("the patience of the cactus"). Its use as an emblem of Palestine has been traced to a painting produced by the artistZulfa al-Sa'di in the 1930s. Its visibility was renewed by historical research carried out in the 1980s and 1990s on theNakba, which revealed that manydestroyed Palestinian villages subsequently saw regrowth of the cacti.[52] The plant's ability to thrive anywhere is also considered to reflect the experiences of thePalestinian diaspora.[53]
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^abcLouhaichi M, Hassan S (2022)."Cactus Pear for Better Nutrition and Income". Home / Research Innovations /.ICARDA.ICARDA (The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas). Retrieved4 December 2022.
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