| Operation Silver Fox | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part ofContinuation War ofWorld War II | |||||||
 A German column during the advance on Murmansk, July 1941 | |||||||
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
 Germany Finland |  Soviet UnionAir & naval support:  United Kingdom[a] | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| N. von FalkenhorstEduard DietlHans FeigeHjalmar Siilasvuo | Markian PopovValerian FrolovRoman PaninStepan Morozov [ru] | ||||||
| Units involved | |||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| 21,501 Germans 5,000 Finns[5] | Unknown | ||||||
  Murmansk | |||||||
Operation Silver Fox (German:Silberfuchs;Finnish:Hopeakettu) orMurmansk operation (Russian:Мурманская операция) from 29 June to 17 November 1941, was a jointGerman–Finnish military operation during theContinuation War on theEastern Front ofWorld War II against theSoviet Union. The objective of the offensive was to cut off and capture the keySovietPort of Murmansk through attacks from Finnish andNorwegian territory.
The operation had three stages. InOperation Reindeer (Rentier) German forces advanced from Norway to secure the area aroundPetsamo and its nickel mines.Operation Platinum Fox (Platinfuchs;Platinakettu) was an attack from the north byMountain Corps Norway, asXXXVI Mountain Corps and units from theFinnish III Corps attacked from the south inOperation Arctic Fox (Polarfuchs;Napakettu) to cut off and capture Murmansk by a pincer movement. The German–Finnish forces took some ground but Murmansk was neither cut off nor captured and continued to operate as an important destination for AlliedArctic convoys throughout the war.
Finland solidified its independence from Russia in theFinnish Civil War of January to May 1918 between German-supported nationalists and Russian Bolshevik-supported communists, in the closing stages ofWorld War I. Tensions between the new anti-communist republic and theSoviet Union remained high during the earlyinterwar years. Following a number ofborder skirmishes between Finnish nationalists and the Soviet Union inKarelia, theTreaty of Tartu settled the border of the two countries in 1920. Soviet-Finnish relations remained cool, but the two parties signed a 10-year non-aggression pact in 1932.[6]
In 1933 theNazis came to power in Germany. The Soviet Union feared an attack by Germany and sought to secure itself against a possible German–Finnish alliance; Finland wanted to preserve its neutrality at any cost. During negotiations in 1938 and 1939, the Soviet Union demanded securities from Finland to allow intervention by theRed Army in case of a German entry into Finland. After a Finnish rejection, the Soviet Union proposed a land-trade for strategic locations it deemed necessary to defend against a German invasion.Gustaf Mannerheim (the Chairman of Finland's Defence Council) and others favoured the proposal, but the Finnish government wanted to preserve its neutrality and the lengthy negotiations failed.[7][8]
On 23 August 1939 theSoviet Union andGermany signed theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which contained a secret protocol dividing Europe into spheres of influence for each country. Finland, they agreed, would fall into the Soviet sphere. Germany subsequently invaded Poland in September 1939; theSoviet Union invaded eastern Poland 16 days later. With Finland still refusing the Soviet demands, the Soviet Union finally attacked Finland in November 1939, which led to theWinter War. The Soviet Union failed to annex Finland[9] but did receive territory with the signing of theMoscow Peace Treaty in March 1940. Feeling abandoned by the Western Allies, Finland started to seek help against the threat posed by the Soviet Union. Finland sought inclusion in wider Scandinavian defense co-operation, but both Soviet and German opposition prevented this. TheGerman occupation of Denmark and Norway from April 1940 severed practical Finnish connections to countries other than the Soviet Union, Nazi Germany and Sweden. A proposed Swedish-Finnish military alliance failed due to Soviet-German pressure. Deprived of other potential sources of help, Finland started to seek closer ties with Germany to secure its position against the Soviet Union, and both sides cooperated to develop a joint policy against the Soviet Union.[10][8]
TheOberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW, the German Armed Forces High Command) included Finnish forces in its plan for a 1941 offensive against the Soviet Union, dubbedOperation Barbarossa. A Finnish–German offensive named Operation Silver Fox (German:Unternehmen Silberfuchs) would support the mainAxis effort (directed against central Russia) from the north. Silver Fox aimed to disable the port of Murmansk, an obvious potentialentrepôt for WesternAllied aid to the Soviet Union, by executing apincer attack against the port.[11][12]
Planning for the operation started in earnest in December 1940.Erich Buschenhagen, chief of staff ofArmy of Norway (AOK Norwegen) visited Finland and drew up a plan which would determine Finland's role in the war, which included the first draft of German–Finnish operations against the Soviet Union. On 8 December 1940, Hitler issuedDirective No. 21, which detailed the campaign plan for Operation Barbarossa, including the targets for proposed German–Finnish cooperation. The detailed plan for the operation was created byNikolaus von Falkenhorst, commander of the Army of Norway and his staff in January 1941.[13][14]
On 18 February 1941 the chief of staff of the Wehrmacht in Norway, ColonelErich Buschenhagen, arrived in Helsinki, and the following days, he had consultations with representatives of the Finnish general staff, GeneralAksel Fredrik Airo, and GeneralErik Heinrichs.
Later, Colonel Buschenhagen visited the region ofKuusamo and easternRovaniemi, as well asPetsamo, to reconnoitre the area, his visit ended on 28 February.
Operation Silver Fox was planned as a two-staged pincer movement, in three operations; the first phase was Operation Reindeer (Unternehmen Rentier) in which the two divisions ofMountain Corps Norway, the2nd and3rd Mountain Divisions under the leadership ofEduard Dietl were to move east fromKirkenes and to deploy in the Finnish held area aroundPetsamo to secure the nickel mines.[15]
The second phase of Operation Silver Fox was to be a pincer attack against the Soviet port of Murmansk which was ice-free in winter and withArkhangelsk was likely to be a destination for Western Alliedsupplies to the Soviet Union. The first prong of the attack was to be a frontal assault against Murmansk by Mountain Corps Norway. The two divisions were to advance east from Petsamo to take Murmansk. On their way, they were to secure theRybachy Peninsula, supported by Finnish border units. This first pincer attack was code namedOperation Platinum Fox (Unternehmen Platinfuchs).[16][15]
The second pincer, codenamedOperation Arctic Fox (Unternehmen Polarfuchs), was to be launched further south to takeSalla, ceded to the Soviet Union after the Winter War and then to proceed eastwards along the railway to captureKandalaksha, cutting the vitalMurmansk Railway line which connected Murmansk with Central Russia. The operation would involve the GermanXXXVI Corps under command ofHans Feige and theFinnish III Corps commanded byHjalmar Siilasvuo.[17][18]
Aerial support for the offensive was to be provided byLuftflotte 5 based in Norway and theFinnish Air Force. For Operation Silver Fox theLuftwaffe created a new headquarters and moved it into Finland. The Finnish air force fielded about 230 aircraft of various types at the start of hostilities.Luftflotte 5 assigned 60 aircraft to Silver Fox in Finland and employed theJunkers Ju 87,Junkers Ju 88 andHeinkel He 111 aircraft for close air support for the Finnish–German offensive.[18][19][20]
By late February 1941, German units were moved into Finland; Germany had secured transit rights through neutralSweden and the German 2nd and 3rd Mountain Divisions were moved into place at Kirkenes, for Operation Reindeer. For the main body of XXXVI Corps, two sea transport operations were arranged,Blue Fox 1 andBlue Fox 2 (Blaufuchs I andBlaufuchs II). German units embarked inStettin andOslo forOulu, from where they continued via train to Rovaniemi. Once there, they joined Finnish forces and marched into position for the offensive under the guise of border defense exercises.[20][21]
Soviet preparations were meager; although the Soviets anticipated a German invasion with possible Finnish support, Stalin did not expect a German attack along the entire border so early. The border had been fortified, but the Soviet leadership was taken by surprise. The main adversary of the German–Finnish force was the SovietNorthern Front consisting of the7th and14th Armies stationed in the Arctic. The Front was under the command of Lieutenant-GeneralMarkian Popov.
On 23 August 1941, the Northern Front was split into theKarelian Front and theLeningrad Front, commanded byValerian Frolov and Popov, respectively.[22] Frolov had commanded the 14th Army and was succeeded byRoman Panin when he assumed command of the Karelian Front on 1 September. During the first weeks, the Axis had numerical superiority, as the Soviets only had 150,000 men stationed north ofLake Ladoga along the border.[4][23][24] The Axis powers also possessed air superiority, as Soviet Karelia was only protected by the 1st and 55th Mixed Air Divisions, with 273 serviceable aircraft of obsolescent types.[25]
During German–Finnish negotiations, Finland had demanded to remain neutral unless the Soviet Union attacked them first. On 22 June 1941, Germany launched Operation Barbarossa, invading the Soviet Union. German aircraft employed Finnish air bases, while also launchingOperation Rentier, which resulted in the take-over of Petsamo on the Finnish–Soviet border. Simultaneously, Finland proceeded toremilitarize the neutral Åland Islands. Despite these actions, the Finnish government insisted via diplomatic channels that it was still a neutral party, but the Soviet leadership already viewed Finland as an ally of Germany. On 22 June, theMurmansk Oblast entered a state of emergency, with a total of 50,000 mobilized into the army and navy. Conscripts and volunteers joined the ranks of the newly formed1st Polar Rifle Division, while sailors from theNorthern Fleet entered the service of a marine infantry brigade. Also, a considerable number of civilians were employed in the construction of four lines of fortifications between Zapadnaya Litsa andKola Bay. Subsequently, the Soviets proceeded to launch a massive air raid on 25 June, bombing all major Finnish cities and industrial centers, including Helsinki, Turku and Lahti. During a night session that same day, the Finnish parliament decided to go to war against the Soviet Union. Operation Silver Fox could now commence.[26][27][28][29][30]
The first phase of Silver Fox was launched on 22 June 1941, to coincide with the launch of the general German offensive,Operation Barbarossa. The two divisions of Mountain Corps Norway moved out from Kirkenes to the east and began deploying in the Finnish-held area aroundPetsamo. The appearance of a German corps on their border came as a surprise to the Russians. The operation was successful and the nickel mines were secured. Dietl's troops reorganized and prepared for the launch of Platinum Fox. In the South, the units of Feige's XXXVI Corps prepared for their attack at Salla.[16][15]
On 29 June Dietl launched his attack together with Finnish border units towards the east. They were opposed by two Soviet divisions of the14th Army, the14th and52nd Rifle Divisions. On the first day, the initial advance of Dietl's forces looked promising. The 2nd Mountain Division was able to secure the neck of Rybachy Peninsula, while the 3rd Mountain Division was able to penetrate the Soviet lines at theTitovka Valley, capturing a bridge over the river.[31][32]
After the element of surprise was lost the German offensive got bogged down as they faced increasingly organized Soviet defenses and difficult surroundings. The rough terrain, the lack of maps and the Arctic weather slowed the Germans down for the entirety of the offensive. Against heavy Soviet resistance, the 2nd Mountain Division could not penetrate the Soviet defenses at the Rybachy peninsula further, and had gone into defensive positions at its neck by July. Some of its units were sent south to aid the 3rd Mountain Division. With the additional forces the Germans were able to advance further east against heavy resistance and reached theLitsa River, where they established a bridgehead over the river. Here the Soviets were able to halt the German advance. An attempt by Dietl's forces to expand the bridgehead towards the east failed when the Soviets launched a flanking attack by landing further north on the German side threatening the German positions. Dietl asked for further reinforcements, but the German High Command was unwilling to grant further units, and Dietl received only marginal reinforcements from Norway.[31][32]
While Dietl's units were halted by heavy Soviet resistance, the supply situation for Mountain Corps Norway deteriorated rapidly. Soviet and British naval forces harassed German supply shipments along the Norwegian coast, weakening the Germans further. Any attempt to renew the offensive failed, instead the Soviets were able to clear the German bridgehead east of the Litsa River and on 21 September the operation came to a halt. Mountain Corps Norway was now ordered to defend the front line and secure the Petsamo area and its nickel-mines, as a renewed offensive was ruled out. Both sides now dug in at their current positions. For the remainder of the war, the northern front was to remain relatively stable until theSoviet offensive of 1944, with only small scale ski patrol skirmishes occurring.[31][32]
Parallel to Platinum FoxPolarfuchs started on 1 July. The German main force at Salla consisted of three divisions, the regular169th Division, the SS-InfantryKampfgruppe Nord and theFinnish 6th Division. They were faced by three divisions of 14th Army, namely the122nd Rifle Division, the104th Rifle Division, and the1st Tank Division. The German units launched a frontal attack againstSalla, while the Finnish 6th Division attempted a massive flanking attack behind the Soviet lines further south towardsAlakurtti andKayraly (Kairala).[18][33]
The initial attack went badly, as the German troops were untrained for Arctic warfare. The SS division in particular, merely former police units (the 6th, 7th and 9thTK-Standarte of theSS-Totenkopfverbände),[34] was unsuccessful in dealing with the organized Soviet defense. After repeated attacks failed, XXXVI Corps combined all its forces and with the help of a flanking attack by the Finnish 6th division the Soviet defenses were finally breached on 6 July. Salla was taken on 8 July, and the Soviets started a general retreat towards Kayraly to the east. XXXVI Corps sustained its momentum by pursuing the fleeing troops, and arrived at Kayral the next day. Kayraly was protected by heavy Soviet defense and large natural lakes around the town. This prevented any further German advance, rendering the situation into a stalemate for the remainder of the month.[35]
Meanwhile, to the south the Finnish III Corps launched its offensive to the east fromKuusamo to support the German advance at Salla. The goal of III Corps was to reachKestenga (Kiestinki) as well asUkhta in a two pronged attack by two battlegroups. From there the corps would then advance towardsLoukhi andKem, where it would cut the Murmansk railway. The initial Finnish advance against its adversary, the54th Rifle Division, was very successful. III Corps moved swiftly through the Arctic forest and defeated several Soviet regiments. It advanced 64 km (40 mi) to the canal betweenLake Pyaozero andLake Topozero in just 20 days. The German command of Army of Norway was impressed by rapid Finnish advance and decided to support the Finns by moving units from XXXVI south to support this attack.[36][37]
III Corps made a crossing of the canal and captured Kestenga on 7 August, while simultaneously reaching the outskirts of Ukhta. The Soviets now moved heavy reinforcements into the area in the form of the88th Rifle Division. This stalled the Finnish offensive.
Meanwhile, to the north XXXVI Corps renewed its offensive on Kayraly in mid-August. A large pincer movement by the 169th Division from the north and the Finnish 6th Division from the south encircled the city, trapping large Soviet formations inside. After clearing the perimeter, XXXVI Corps advanced further to the east. It took Alakurtti and reached theVoyta andVerman Rivers where the old 1939 Soviet border fortifications were situated. Against heavy Soviet resistance, the exhausted troops of XXXVI Corps could not advance. With the German High Command moving units from XXXVI Corps to the south to bolster III Corps advance, Feige's corps did not continue offensive efforts and went onto the defensive at the end of September.[38][39][40]
Bolstered by the new German arrivals, the Finnish III Corps launched its final offensive on 30 October. The Soviets had increased their defenses and had moved in additional units from other locations. Nevertheless, Finnish forces took some ground and encircled an entire Soviet regiment. Suddenly on 17 November the Finnish command ordered an end to the offensive despite positive feedback from the field commanders that further ground could be taken. The reason for this sudden change in Finnish behavior was the result of diplomatic pressure by the United States. Prior to the cancellation of the offensive, US diplomats warned Finland that a disruption of US deliveries to the Soviet Union would have serious consequences for Finland. Therefore, Finland became no longer interested in spearheading the offensive. With the Finnish refusal to be involved in the offensive, Arctic Fox came to an end in November and both sides dug in at their current positions.[41][42]
Operation Silver Fox did not achieved its sophisticated goals. During the operation the Germans and Finns had taken some ground at both fronts, but overall the operation failed in terms of its strategic intentions, as neither Murmansk nor the Murmansk railway at Kandalaksha were captured. The closest the German-Finnish force came to disrupting the Murmansk railway was east of Kestenga, where they were about 20 km (12 mi) away from it, while Dietl's force in the north did not even come close to approaching Murmansk. The German forces, especially the SS-troops, were unsuited, ill-trained, and unprepared for Arctic warfare and therefore made little progress while suffering heavy casualties. On the other hand, Finnish units, especially the6th Division of the III Finnish Corps, made good progress and inflicted heavy casualties on the Soviet forces.[43][42]
The failure of Silver Fox had a significant impact on the course of the war in the east. Murmansk was a major base for theSoviet Northern Fleet and it was also together withArkhangelsk the main destination for Allied aid shipped to the Soviet Union. British convoys had been traveling to Murmansk since the summer at the onset of the Soviet-German war, and with the entry of the United States into the war in December 1941, the influx of Western Allied aid increased massively. The United States enacted theLend-Lease pact in which they vowed to supply the Soviet Union with large quantities of food, oil, and war materiel. One quarter of this aid was delivered via Murmansk. This included large amounts of raw materials, such as aluminium, as well as large quantities of manufactured military goods, including 5,218 tanks, 7,411 aircraft, 4,932 anti-tank guns, 473 million rounds of ammunition and various sea vessels. Those supplies benefited the Soviets significantly and contributed to their resistance.[2][44][45]
For the remainder of the war the Arctic front remained stable. The German High Command did not regard it as an important theater and therefore refrained from transferring the substantial reinforcements needed for a renewal of the offensive. The Finns likewise were not interested in continuing the offensive on their own as they did not want to antagonize the Western Allies further. In September 1944, the Finns signed theMoscow Armistice with the Soviet Union and had to give up all their territorial conquests. German forces subsequentlyretreated from Central Finland to Petsamo and Norway. In October 1944, the Red Army conducted thePetsamo-Kirkenes Operation and achieved a decisive victory over the German forces in the Arctic by completely expelling them from Finland.[46][47]
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