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Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) was the official name used by theU.S. government for both the first stage (2001–2014) of thewar in Afghanistan (2001–2021) and related military operations during broader-scaleGlobal War on Terrorism. On 7 October 2001, in response to theSeptember 11 attacks,PresidentGeorge W. Bush announced that airstrikes againstal-Qaeda and theTaliban had begun in Afghanistan.[12] Beyond the military actions in Afghanistan, U.S military command structures operating under the Operation Enduring Freedom banner were also affiliated with severalcounterterrorism missions in other countries, such asOEF-Philippines andOEF-Trans Sahara.[13][14]
After 13 years, on 28 December 2014, PresidentBarack Obama announced the end of Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan.[15] Subsequent operations in Afghanistan by the United States' military forces, both non-combat and combat, occurred under the nameOperation Freedom's Sentinel.[16]
Operation Enduring Freedom referred to the U.S.-led combat mission in Afghanistan.[17][18] The codename was also used forcounter-terrorism operations in other countries targetingAl Qaeda and remnants of theTaliban, such asOEF-Philippines,OEF-Trans Sahara, and possibly in Georgia'sPankisi Gorge,[19] primarily through government funding vehicles.[13][14]
The U.S. government used the term "Operation Enduring Freedom" to officially describe theWar in Afghanistan, from the period between 7 October 2001 and 31 December 2014.[20][25] Subsequent operations in Afghanistan by the United States' military forces, both non-combat and combat, occurred under the nameOperation Freedom's Sentinel.[16]
The operation was originally called "Operation Infinite Justice", but as similar phrases have been used by adherents of several religions as an exclusive description of God, it is believed to have been changed to avoid offense to Muslims who are the majority religion in Afghanistan.[26] In September 2001, U.S. PresidentGeorge W. Bush's remark that "thiscrusade, this war on terrorism, is going to take a while," which prompted widespread criticism from the Islamic world, may also have contributed to the renaming of the operation.[26]
The term "OEF" typically refers to the phase of the War in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2014. Other operations, such as theGeorgia Train and Equip Program, are only loosely or nominally connected, such as through government funding vehicles.[13] All the operations, however, have a focus oncounterterrorism activities.
Operation Enduring Freedom, which was a joint U.S., U.K., and Afghan operation, was separate from theInternational Security Assistance Force (ISAF), which was an operation ofNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization nations including the U.S. and the U.K.[27] The two operations ran in parallel, although it had been suggested that they merge.[28]
On September 11th, 2001, Al Qaeda carried out terrorist attacks in New York City and Washington D.C. Shortly after President George W. Bush declared a war on terror. In response to theSeptember 11 attacks, the early combat operations that took place on 7 October 2001 to include a mix of strikes from land-basedB-1 Lancer,B-2 Spirit andB-52 Stratofortress bombers, carrier-basedF-14 Tomcat andF/A-18 Hornet fighters, andTomahawk cruise missiles launched from both U.S. and British ships and submarines signaled the start of Operation Enduring Freedom.
The initial military objectives of OEF, as articulated by PresidentGeorge W. Bush in his 20 September address to a Joint Session of Congress and his 7 October address to the country, included the destruction ofterrorist training camps andinfrastructure within Afghanistan, the capture ofal-Qaeda leaders, and the cessation of terrorist activities in Afghanistan.[29]
In January 2002, over 1,200 soldiers from theUnited States Special Operations Command Pacific (SOCPAC) deployed to the Philippines to support theArmed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) in their push to uproot terrorist forces on the island ofBasilan. Of those groups included areAbu Sayyaf Group (ASG),al-Qaeda andJemaah Islamiyah.[30] The operation consisted of training the AFP in counter-terrorist operations as well as supporting the local people with humanitarian aid inOperation Smiles.[31]
In October 2002, theCombined Task Force 150 and United States military Special Forces established themselves in Djibouti atCamp Lemonnier. The stated goals of the operation were to provide humanitarian aid and patrol theHorn of Africa to reduce the abilities of terrorist organizations in the region. Similar to OEF-P, the goal of humanitarian aid was emphasized, ostensibly to prevent militant organizations from being able to take hold amongst the population as well as reemerge after being removed.
The military aspect involves coalition forces searching and boarding ships entering the region for illegal cargo as well as providing training and equipment to the armed forces in the region. The humanitarian aspect involves building schools, clinics and water wells to enforce the confidence of the local people.
Since 2001, the cumulative expenditure by the U.S. government on Operation Enduring Freedom has exceeded $150 billion.[32]
Seizing upon apower vacuum after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan after theirinvasion, theTaliban governed Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001. Their extreme interpretation of Islamic law prompted them to ban music, television, sports, and dancing, and enforce harsh judicial penalties (SeeHuman rights in Afghanistan). Amputation was an accepted form of punishment for stealing,[33][34] and public executions could often be seen at the Kabul football stadium.[35][36] Women's rights groups around the world were frequently critical as the Taliban banned women from appearing in public or holding many jobs outside the home.[citation needed] They drew further criticism[37] when they destroyed theBuddhas of Bamyan, historical statues nearly 1,500 years old, because the Buddhas were considered idols.
In 1996, SaudidissidentOsama bin Laden moved to Afghanistan. When the Taliban came to power, bin Laden was able to forge an alliance between the Taliban and hisal-Qaeda organization. It is understood that al-Qaeda-trained fighters known as the055 Brigade were integrated with the Taliban army between 1997 and 2001. It has been suggested that the Taliban and bin Laden had very close connections.[38]
On 20 September 2001, the U.S. stated that Osama bin Laden was behind the11 September attacks in 2001. The U.S. made a five-point ultimatum to the Taliban:[39]
On 21 September 2001, theTaliban rejected this ultimatum, stating there was no evidence in their possession linking bin Laden to the 11 September attacks.[40]
On 22 September 2001, the United Arab Emirates and later Saudi Arabia withdrew their recognition of the Taliban as the legal government of Afghanistan, leaving neighboring Pakistan as the only remaining country with diplomatic ties.
On 4 October 2001, it was reported that the Taliban covertly offered to turn bin Laden over to Pakistan for trial in an international tribunal that operated according to Islamicshar'ia law.[41] On 7 October 2001, the Taliban proposed to try bin Laden in Afghanistan in an Islamic court.[42] This proposition was immediately rejected by the US.[43]
On 14 October 2001, the Taliban proposed to hand bin Laden over to a third country for trial, but only if they were given evidence of bin Laden's involvement in the events of 11 September 2001.[44]
TheUN Security Council, on 16 January 2002, unanimously established an arms embargo and the freezing of identifiable assets belonging to bin Laden, al-Qaeda, and the remaining Taliban.
On Sunday 7 October 2001, American and British warplanes began fighting Taliban forces and al-Qaeda. Cruise missiles were fired from warships.[45]
TheNorthern Alliance, aided byJoint Special Operations teams consisting of Green Berets from the5th Special Forces Group, aircrew members from the160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (SOAR), andAir Force Combat Controllers, fought against the Taliban. Aided by U.S. bombing and massive defections, they capturedMazar-i-Sharif on 9 November. They then rapidly gained control of most of northern Afghanistan, and took control of Kabul on 13 November after the Taliban unexpectedly fled the city. The Taliban were restricted to a smaller and smaller region, withKunduz, the last Taliban-held city in the north, captured on 26 November. Most of the Taliban fled to Pakistan.
The war continued in the south of the country, where the Taliban retreated toKandahar. Whilst in Kandahar the Taliban agreed to surrender but the deal was rejected by Secretary of DefenseDonald Rumsfeld as it would have provided amnesty to Taliban leaderMullah Mohammed Omar.[46][47] After Kandahar fell in December,[48] remnants of the Taliban and al-Qaeda continued tomount resistance. Meanwhile, in November 2001 the U.S. military and its allied forces established their first ground base in Afghanistan to the south west ofKandahar, known asFOB Rhino.[49]
TheBattle of Tora Bora, involving U.S., German, British and Northern Alliance forces took place in December 2001 to further destroy the Taliban and suspected al-Qaeda in Afghanistan. In early March 2002 the United States military, along with allied Afghan military forces, conducted a large operation to destroy al-Qaeda in an operation code-namedOperation Anaconda.
The operation was carried out by elements of the United States10th Mountain Division,101st Airborne Division, theU.S. special forces groups TF 11, TF Bowie, TF Dagger, TF K-Bar, BritishRoyal Marines, the NorwegianForsvarets Spesialkommando,Hærens Jegerkommando andMarinejegerkommandoen, Canada's 3rd BattalionPrincess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry, Canada'sJoint Task Force 2, the GermanKSK, and elements of theAustralian Special Air Service Regiment and of theNew Zealand Special Air Service and theAfghan National Army.
After managing to evade U.S. forces throughout the summer of 2002, the remnants of the Taliban gradually began to regain their confidence. A U.S. and Canadian led operation (supported by British and Dutch forces),Operation Mountain Thrust was launched in May 2006 to counter renewed Taliban insurgency.
Since January 2006, theNATOInternational Security Assistance Force undertook combat duties from Operation Enduring Freedom in southern Afghanistan, the NATO force chiefly made up of British, Canadian and Dutch forces (and some smaller contributions from Denmark, Romania and Estonia and air support from Norway as well as air and artillery support from the U.S.) (see the articleCoalition combat operations in Afghanistan in 2006). The United States military also conducts military operations separate from NATO as part of Operation Enduring Freedom in other parts of Afghanistan, in areas such as Kandahar, Bagram, and Kabul (includingCamp Eggers andCamp Phoenix.)
The United States was supported byseveral nations during Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) in Afghanistan in 2001–2003 and in subsequent coalition operations directly or indirectly in support of OEF. See the articleAfghanistan War order of battle for the disposition of coalition forces in Afghanistan as of 2012.
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The U.S.-led coalition initially removed theTaliban from power and seriously crippledal-Qaeda and associated militants in Afghanistan. However, success in quelling the Taliban insurgency since the 2001 invasion has faltered. As the war dragged on, the Taliban demonstrated they could not be defeated also thanks to sanctuary in neighboring Pakistan.[50]
On 9 October 2004, Afghanistan electedHamid Karzai president in its first direct elections. The following year, Afghans conducted the2005 Afghan parliamentary election on 18 September. Since the invasion, hundreds of schools and mosques have been constructed, millions of dollars in aid have been distributed, and the occurrence of violence has been reduced.
While military forces interdictedinsurgents and assured some form of security,Provincial reconstruction teams were tasked with infrastructure building, such as constructing roads and bridges, assisting during floods, and providing food and water torefugees. Many warlords have participated in an allegiance program, formally recognizing the legitimacy of the government of Afghanistan, and formally surrendering their soldiers and weapons. Subsequent actions have led to questions about their true loyalties.
TheAfghan National Army,Afghan National Police, andAfghan Border Police were being trained to assume the task of securing their nation.
On 31 December 2014, Operation Enduring Freedom concluded, and was succeeded byOperation Freedom's Sentinel on 1 January 2015.[51][52]
In 2020, the US left Afghanistan to the Taliban under an agreement ensuring a safe passage for American forces out of the country by mid 2021.[53][54]On 15 August 2021, all of Afghanistan, besides Kabul, was back in the hands of Taliban. By August 31, all US and allied forces departed the Hamid Karzai International Airport, thus ending any official operations within Afghanistan.[55][56][52]
Hardliner newspapers in Iran and religious scholars in Lebanon suggested "Infinite Imperialism", "Infinite Arrogance", or "Infinite Injustice" might have been more appropriate name for the operation.[26][57][58][59][60]
AFP, reporting on a news story in the Sunday, 3 April 2004, issue ofThe New Yorker,[61] wrote that retired Army Colonel Hy Rothstein, "who served in theArmy Special Forces for more than 20 years [and was] commissioned bythe Pentagon to examine the war in Afghanistan, concluded the conflict created conditions that have given 'warlordism, banditry and opium production a new lease on life.' "
The conduct of U.S. forces was criticised in a report entitledEnduring Freedom – Abuses by U.S. Forces in Afghanistan by U.S.-based human rights groupHuman Rights Watch in 2004. Some Pakistani scholars, such asMasood Ashraf Raja, editor ofPakistaniaat, have also provided a more specific form of criticism that relates to the consequences of the Global War on Terrorism on the region.[62]
The Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) Al Harakat Al Islamiyya, is deemed a "foreign terrorist organization" by the United States government. Specifically, it is anIslamist separatist group based in and around the southern islands of the Republic of the Philippines, primarilyJolo,Basilan, andMindanao.[63]
Since inception in the early 1990s, the group has carried outbombings, assassinations,kidnappings, andextortion in their fight for an independent Islamic state in westernMindanao and theSulu Archipelago.[63] Its claimed overarching goal is to create a Pan-Islamic superstate across theMalay portions of Southeast Asia, spanning, from east to west, the large island of Mindanao, the Sulu Archipelago (Basilan and Jolo islands), the large island ofBorneo (Malaysia and Indonesia), theSouth China Sea, and theMalay Peninsula (Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand andMyanmar).
Jemaah Islamiyah is amilitant Islamic terrorist organization dedicated to the establishment of a fundamentalist Islamictheocracy in Southeast Asia, in particular Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia, the south of Thailand and the Philippines. Jemaah Islamiyah originally used peaceful means to achieve its goals, but later resorted to terrorism because of its connections with al-Qaeda.[64]
Financial links between Jemaah Islamiyah and other terrorist groups, such asAbu Sayyaf andal-Qaeda, have been found to exist.[65] Jemaah Islamiyah means "Islamic Group" or "Islamic Community" and is often abbreviated JI.
Jemaah Islamiyah is thought to have killed hundreds of civilians. Also, it is suspected of carrying out theBali car bombing on 12 October 2002, in which suicide bombers attacked a nightclub killing 202 people and wounding many more. Most of the casualties were Australian tourists. After this attack, theU.S. State Department designated Jemaah Islamiyah as aForeign Terrorist Organization. Jemaah Islamiyah is also suspected of carrying out theZamboanga bombings, theMetro Manila bombings, the2004 Australian embassy bombing and the2005 Bali terrorist bombing.
In January 2002, 1,200 Members ofUnited States Special Operations Command, Pacific (SOCPAC) were deployed to the Philippines to assist the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) in uprooting al-Qaeda, Jemaah Islamiyah and Abu Sayyaf. The members of SOCPAC were assigned to assist in military operations against the terrorist forces as well as humanitarian operations for the island of Basilan, where most of the conflict was expected to take place.
The United States Special Forces (SF) Unit trained and equipped special forces and scout rangers of the AFP, creating theLight Reaction Company (LRC). The LRC and elements of SOCPAC deployed to Basilan on completion of their training. The stated goals of the deployment were denying the ASG sanctuary, surveiling, controlling, and denying ASG routes, surveiling supporting villages and key personnel, conducting local training to overcome AFP weaknesses and sustain AFP strengths, supporting operations by the AFP "strike force" (LRC) in the area of responsibility (AOR), conducting and supporting civil affairs operations in the AOR.[66]
The desired result was for the AFP to gain sufficient capability to locate and destroy the ASG, to recover hostages and to enhance the legitimacy of the Philippine government. Much of the operation was a success: the ASG was driven from Basilan and one U.S. hostage was recovered.[66] The Abu Sayyaf Group's ranks, which once counted more than 800 members, was reduced to less than 100. The humanitarian portion of the operation, Operation Smiles, created 14 schools, 7 clinics, 3 hospitals and provided medical care to over 18,000 residents of Basilan. Humanitarian groups were able to continue their work without fear of further kidnappings and terrorists attacks by the Abu Sayyaf Group.[31][67]
Unlike other operations contained in Operation Enduring Freedom, OEF-HOA does not have a specific terrorist organization as a target. OEF-HOA instead focuses its efforts to disrupt and detect terrorist activities in the region and to work with host nations to deny the reemergence of terrorist cells and activities. Operations began in mid-2002 atCamp Lemonnier by aCombined Joint Special Operations Task Force (CJSOTF) augmented by support forces fromFort Stewart,Fort Hood, andFort Story. In October 2002, the Combined Joint Task Force, Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) was established at Djibouti atCamp Lemonnier, taking over responsibilities from the CJSOTF. CJTF-HOA comprised approximately 2,000 personnel including U.S. military and Special Operations Forces (SOF), and coalition force members,Combined Task Force 150 (CTF-150). The coalition force consists of ships from Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Netherlands, India, Italy, Pakistan, New Zealand, Spain, Turkey and the United Kingdom. The primary goal of the coalition forces is to monitor, inspect, board and stop suspected shipments from entering the Horn of Africa region. Since 2003, the U.S. Military also conducts operations targeting Al-Qaeda-linked fighters in Somalia, these operations had reportedly killed between 113 and 136 militants by early 2016. On 7 March 2016, a further 150 were killed in U.S. airstrikes on an al Shabaab training camp north of Mogadishu.[68]
CJTF-HOA has devoted the majority of its efforts to train selected armed forces units of the countries of Djibouti, Kenya and Ethiopia in counterterrorism and counterinsurgency tactics. Humanitarian efforts conducted by CJTF-HOA include the rebuilding of schools and medical clinics, as well as providing medical services to those countries whose forces are being trained. The program expands as part of the Trans-Saharan Counter Terrorism Initiative as CJTF personnel also assist in training the forces of Chad, Niger, Mauritania and Mali.[69]
"Operation Enduring Freedom"
Anti-piracy operations were undertaken by the coalition throughout 2006 with abattle fought in March when US vessels were attacked by pirates. In January 2007, during thewar in Somalia, anAC-130 airstrike was conducted againstal-Qaeda members embedded with forces of theIslamic Courts Union (ICU) operating in southern Somalia nearRas Kamboni. US naval forces, including theaircraft carrierUSSDwight D. Eisenhower, were positioned off the coast of Somalia to provide support and to prevent any al-Qaeda forces escaping by sea. Actions against pirates also occurred in June and October 2007 with varying amounts of success.
"Operation Resolute Support/Freedom's Sentinel"
Effective 1 January 2015, Secretary of Defense Hagel announced that the new U.S. mission in Afghanistan will focus on training, advising, and assisting Afghan security forces and designated as Operation Freedom's Sentinel.19 About 13,500 U.S. troops are expected in Afghanistan through2015 and will be assisted by troops from NATO allies.
Since 2002, the United States military has created military awards and decorations related to Operation Enduring Freedom
NATO also created a military decoration related to Operation Enduring Freedom:
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