Om emerged in theVedic corpus and is said to be an encapsulated form ofSamavedic chants or songs.[1][10] It is a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, duringpuja and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passage (samskara) such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such asPranava yoga.[13][14] It is part of the iconography found in ancient and medieval era manuscripts, temples, monasteries, and spiritual retreats inHinduism,Buddhism,Jainism, andSikhism.[15][16] As a syllable, it is often chanted either independently or before a spiritual recitation and duringmeditation in Hinduism,Buddhism, andJainism.[17][18]
Udgītha (उद्गीथ); meaning "song, chant", a word found inSamaveda andbhasya (commentaries) based on it. It is also used as a name of the syllable Om in Chandogya Upanishad.[27]
Akṣara (अक्षर); literally, "imperishable, immutable", and also "letter of the alphabet" or "syllable".
Ekākṣara; literally, "one letter of the alphabet", referring to its representation as a singleligature. (seebelow)
The etymological origins ofōm(aum) have long been discussed and disputed, with even theUpanishads having proposed multipleSanskrit etymologies foraum, including: from "ām" (आम्; "yes"), from "ávam" (आवम्; "that, thus, yes"), and from the Sanskrit roots "āv-" (अव्; "to urge") or "āp-" (आप्; "to attain").[28][A] In 1889,Maurice Bloomfield proposed an origin from aProto-Indo-European introductoryparticle "*au" with a function similar to the Sanskrit particle "atha" (अथ).[28] However, contemporaryIndologistAsko Parpola proposes a borrowing fromDravidian "*ām" meaning "'it is so', 'let it be so', 'yes'", a contraction of "*ākum", cognate with modernTamil "ām" (ஆம்) meaning "yes".[28][29] In theJaffna Tamil dialect spoken in Sri Lanka,aum' is the word for yes.[citation needed]
Om emerged in theVedic corpus and is said to be an encapsulated form ofSamavedic chants or songs.[1][10] TheSamaveda, the poetical Veda, orthographically mapsOm to the audible, the musical truths in its numerous variations (Oum,Aum,Ovā Ovā Ovā Um, etc.) and then attempts to extractmusical meters from it.[9] TheAitareya Brahmana of Rig Veda, in section 5.32, suggests that the three phonetic components ofOm (a +u +m) correspond to the three stages of cosmic creation, and when it is read or said, it celebrates the creative powers of the universe.[9][30] However, regardless of its original meaning, the syllableOm evolves to mean many abstract ideas even in the earliest Upanishads.Max Müller and other scholars state that these philosophical texts recommendOm as a basic tool for meditation[11] and explain the various meanings that the syllable may hold in the mind of one meditating, ranging from "artificial and senseless" to the "highest concepts such as the cause of the Universe, essence of life,Brahman,Atman, and Self-knowledge".[31][32]
In theAranyaka and theBrahmana layers of Vedic texts, the syllable is so widespread and linked to knowledge, that it stands for the "whole of Veda".[9] The Brahmana layer of Vedic texts equatesOm withbhur-bhuvah-svah, which symbolizes "the whole Veda". They offer various shades of meaning toOm, such as it being "the universe beyond the sun", or that which is "mysterious and inexhaustible", or "the infinite language, the infinite knowledge", or "essence of breath, life, everything that exists", or that "with which one is liberated".[9] The symbolic foundations ofOm are repeatedly discussed in the oldest layers of the early Upanishads.[33][34] In the Upanishads, it has been associated with various concepts, such as "cosmic sound", "mystical syllable", "affirmation to something divine", or as symbolism for abstract spiritual concepts.[9] However, in the eight anuvaka of the Taittiriya Upanishad, which consensus research indicates was formulated around the same time or preceding Aitareya Brahmana, the sound Aum is attributed to reflecting the inner part of the word Brahman. Put another way, it is the Brahman, in the form of a word.[35]
When occurring within spokenClassical Sanskrit, the syllable is subject to the normal rules ofsandhi inSanskrit grammar, with the additional peculiarity that the initialo of "Om" is theguṇavowel grade ofu, not thevṛddhi grade, and is therefore pronounced as amonophthong with along vowel ([oː]), i.e.ōm notaum.[B][36] Furthermore, the finalm is oftenassimilated into the preceding vowel asnasalisation (raṅga). As a result,Om is regularly pronounced[õː] in the context of Sanskrit.
However, thiso reflects the olderVedic Sanskritdiphthongau, which at that stage in the language's history had not yetmonophthongised too. This being so, the syllableOm is oftenarchaically considered as consisting of threephonemes: "a-u-m".[37][38][39][40] Accordingly, some denominations maintain the archaic diphthongau viewing it to be more authentic and closer to the language of theVedas.
In the context of theVedas, particularly the VedicBrahmanas, the vowel is oftenpluta ("three times as long"),indicating a length of threemorae (trimātra), that is, the time it takes to say threelight syllables. Additionally, a diphthong becomespluta with the prolongation of its first vowel.[36] Whene ando undergopluti they typically revert to the original diphthongs with the initiala prolonged,[41] realised as anoverlongopen back unrounded vowel (ā̄um ora3um[ɑːːum]). This extended duration is emphasised by denominations who regard it as more authentically Vedic, such asArya Samaj.
However,Om is also attested in theUpanishads withoutpluta,[C] and many languages related to or influenced by Classical Sanskrit, such asHindustani, share its pronunciation ofOm ([õː] or[oːm]).
Statue depictingShiva as theNataraja dancing in a posture resembling the Devangari ligature forOm;Joseph Campbell argued that theNataraja statue representsOm as a symbol of the entirety of "consciousness, universe" and "the message that God is within a person and without"[42]
Nagari orDevanagari representations are foundepigraphically on sculpture dating fromMedieval India and on ancient coins in regional scripts throughout South Asia.Om is represented inDevanagari asओम्, composed of four elements: thevowel letterअ(a), thevowel diacriticो(o), theconsonant letterम(m), and thevirama stroke् which indicates the absence of an implied final vowel. Historically, the combinationओ represented a diphthong, often transcribed asau, but it now represents a long vowel,ō. (Seeabove.) The syllable is sometimes writtenओ३म्, where३ (i.e., the digit "3") explicitly indicatespluta ('three times as long') which is otherwise only implied. For this same reasonOm may also be writtenओऽम् in languages such asHindi, with theavagraha (ऽ) being used to indicate prolonging the vowel sound. (However, this differs from the usage of theavagraha inSanskrit, where it would instead indicate theprodelision of the initial vowel.)Om may also be writtenओं, with ananusvāra reflecting the pronunciation of[õː] in languages such as Hindi. In languages such asUrdu andSindhiOm may be writtenاوم inArabic script, although speakers of these languages may also use Devanagari representations.
The commonly seen representation of the syllableOm,ॐ, is acursiveligature inDevanagari, combiningअ(a) withउ(u) and thechandrabindu (ँ,ṃ). InUnicode, the symbol is encoded atU+0950ॐDEVANAGARI OM and atU+1F549🕉OM SYMBOL as a "generic symbol independent of Devanagari font".[43]
In some South Asianwriting systems, theOm symbol has been simplified further. InBengali and AssameseOm is written simply asওঁ without an additional curl. In languages such asBengali differences in pronunciation compared to Sanskrit have made the addition of a curl foru redundant. Although the spelling is simpler, the pronunciation remains[õː]. Similarly, inOdiaOm is written asଓଁ without an additional diacritic.
InTamil,Om is written asௐ, a ligature ofஓ (ō) andம் (m), while inKannada,Telugu, andMalayalam,Om is written simply as the letter forō followed byanusvāra (ಓಂ,ఓం, andഓം, respectively).
There have been proposals that theOm syllable may already have had written representations inBrahmi script, dating to before theCommon Era. A proposal by Deb (1921) held that theswastika is amonogrammatic representation of the syllableOm, wherein two Brahmi /o/ characters (U+11011𑀑BRAHMI LETTER O) were superposed crosswise and the 'm' was represented by dot.[44] A commentary inNature (1922) considers this theory questionable and unproven.[45]A. B. Walawalkar (1951) proposed thatOm was represented using the Brahmi symbols for "A", "U", and "M" (𑀅𑀉𑀫), and that this may have influenced the unusualepigraphical features of the symbolॐ forOm.[46][47]Parker (1909) wrote that an "Aum monogram", distinct from the swastika, is found amongTamil-Brahmiinscriptions in Sri Lanka,[48] includingAnuradhapura era coins, dated from the 1st to 4th centuries CE, which are embossed withOm along with other symbols.[49]
InHinduism,Om is one of the most important spiritual sounds.[3] The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in theVedas, theUpanishads, and otherHindu texts,[9] and is often chanted either independently or before a mantra, as a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, duringpuja and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passages (sanskara) such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such asyoga.[13][14]
Om came to be used as a standard utterance at the beginning of mantras, chants or citations taken from theVedas. For example, theGayatri mantra, which consists of a verse from theRigveda Samhita (RV 3.62.10), is prefixed not just byOm but byOm followed by the formulabhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ.[57] Such recitations continue to be in use in Hinduism, with many major incantations and ceremonial functions beginning and ending withOm.[18]
TheAitareya Brahmana (7.18.13) explainsOm as "an acknowledgment, melodic confirmation, something that gives momentum and energy to a hymn".[3]
Om is the agreement (pratigara) with a hymn. Likewise istathā = 'so be it' [the agreement] with a [worldly] song (gāthā) [= the applause]. ButOm is something divine, andtathā is something human.
Ōṃ is given many meanings and layers of symbolism in theUpanishads, including "the sacred sound, theYes!, theVedas, theudgitha (song of the universe), the infinite, the all encompassing, the whole world, the truth,the Ultimate Reality, the finest essence,the cause of the universe, the essence of life, theBrahman, theātman, the vehicle of deepest knowledge, andself-knowledge (ātmajñāna)".[32]
TheChandogya Upanishad is one of the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism. It opens with the recommendation that "let a man meditate on Om".[58] It calls the syllableOm asudgitha (उद्गीथ; song, chant), and asserts that the significance of the syllable is thus: the essence of all beings is earth, the essence of earth is water, the essence of water are the plants, the essence of plants is man, the essence of man is speech, the essence of speech is theRigveda, the essence of the Rigveda is the Samaveda, and the essence of Samaveda is theudgitha (song,Om).[59]
Ṛc (ऋच्) is speech, states the text, andsāman (सामन्) is breath; they are pairs, and because they have love for each other, speech and breath find themselves together and mate to produce a song.[58][59] The highest song isOm, asserts section 1.1 of Chandogya Upanishad. It is the symbol of awe, of reverence, of threefold knowledge becauseAdhvaryu invokes it, theHotr recites it, andUdgatr sings it.[59][60]
The second volume of the first chapter continues its discussion of syllableOm, explaining its use as a struggle betweenDevas (gods) andAsuras (demons).[61] Max Muller states that this struggle between gods and demons is considered allegorical by ancientIndian scholars, as good and evil inclinations within man, respectively.[62] The legend in section 1.2 of Chandogya Upanishad states that gods took theUdgitha (song ofOm) unto themselves, thinking, "with thissong we shall overcome the demons".[63] The syllableOm is thus implied as that which inspires the good inclinations within each person.[62][63]
Chandogya Upanishad's exposition of syllableOm in its opening chapter combines etymological speculations, symbolism, metric structure and philosophical themes.[60][64] In the second chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad, the meaning and significance ofOm evolves into a philosophical discourse, such as in section 2.10 whereOm is linked to the Highest Self,[65] and section 2.23 where the text assertsOm is the essence of three forms of knowledge,Om isBrahman and "Om is all this [observed world]".[66]
TheKatha Upanishad is the legendary story of a little boy,Nachiketa, the son of sageVājaśravasa, who meetsYama, the Vedic deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge,Atman (Self) andmoksha (liberation).[67] In section 1.2, Katha Upanishad characterises knowledge (vidyā) as the pursuit of the good, and ignorance (avidyā) as the pursuit of the pleasant.[68] It teaches that the essence of the Veda is to make man liberated and free, look past what has happened and what has not happened, free from the past and the future, beyond good and evil, and one word for this essence is the wordOm.[69]
The word which all the Vedas proclaim, That which is expressed in everyTapas (penance, austerity, meditation), That for which they live the life of aBrahmacharin, Understand that word in its essence:Om! that is the word. Yes, this syllable isBrahman, This syllable is the highest. He who knows that syllable, Whatever he desires, is his.
TheMaitrayaniya Upanishad in sixthPrapathakas (lesson) discusses the meaning and significance ofOm. The text asserts thatOm represents Brahman-Atman. The three roots of the syllable, states the Maitri Upanishad, areA +U +M.[70]
The sound is the body of Self, and it repeatedly manifests in three:
as gender-endowed body – feminine, masculine, neuter;
Brahman exists in two forms – the material form, and the immaterial formless.[72] The material form is changing, unreal. The immaterial formless is not changing, real. The immortal formless is truth, the truth is the Brahman, the Brahman is the light, the light is the Sun which is the syllableOm as the Self.[73][74][I]
The world isOm, its light is Sun, and the Sun is also the light of the syllableOm, asserts the Upanishad. Meditating onOm, is acknowledging and meditating on the Brahman-Atman (Self).[70]
TheMundaka Upanishad in the secondMundakam (part), suggests the means to knowing the Atman and the Brahman are meditation, self-reflection, and introspection and that they can be aided by the symbolOm. It uses a bow and arrow analogy, where the bow symbolizes the focused mind, the arrow symbolizes the self (Atman), and the target represents the ultimate reality (Brahman).[76][77]
That which is flaming, which is subtler than the subtle, on which the worlds are set, and their inhabitants – That is the indestructible Brahman.[J] It is life, it is speech, it is mind. That is the real. It is immortal. It is a mark to be penetrated. Penetrate It, my friend.
Taking as a bow the great weapon of the Upanishad, one should put upon it an arrow sharpened by meditation, Stretching it with a thought directed to the essence of That, Penetrate[K] that Imperishable as the mark, my friend.
Om is the bow, the arrow is the Self, Brahman the mark, By the undistracted man is It to be penetrated, One should come to be in It, as the arrow becomes one with the mark.
TheMandukya Upanishad opens by declaring, "Om!, this syllable is this whole world".[81] Thereafter, it presents various explanations and theories on what it means and signifies.[82] This discussion is built on a structure of "four fourths" or "fourfold", derived fromA +U +M + "silence" (or without an element).[81][82]
In verse 1, the Upanishad states that time is threefold: the past, the present and the future, that these three areOm. The four fourth of time is that which transcends time, that too isOm expressed.[82]
In verse 2, states the Upanishad, everything is Brahman, but Brahman is Atman (the Self), and that the Atman is fourfold.[81] Johnston summarizes these four states of Self, respectively, as seeking the physical, seeking inner thought, seeking the causes and spiritual consciousness, and the fourth state is realizing oneness with the Self, the Eternal.[83]
In verses 3 to 6, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates four states of consciousness: wakeful, dream, deep sleep, and the state ofekatma (being one with Self, the oneness of Self).[82] These four areA +U +M + "without an element" respectively.[82]
In verses 9 to 12, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates fourfold etymological roots of the syllableOm. It states that the first element ofOm isA, which is fromApti (obtaining, reaching) or fromAdimatva (being first).[81] The second element isU, which is fromUtkarsa (exaltation) or fromUbhayatva (intermediateness).[82] The third element isM, fromMiti (erecting, constructing) or fromMi Minati, or apīti (annihilation).[81] The fourth is without an element, without development, beyond the expanse of universe. In this way, states the Upanishad, the syllable Om is indeed the Atman (the self).[81][82]
TheShvetashvatara Upanishad, in verses 1.14 to 1.16, suggests meditating with the help of syllableOm, where one's perishable body is like one fuel-stick and the syllableOm is the second fuel-stick, which with discipline and diligent rubbing of the sticks unleashes the concealed fire of thought and awareness within. Such knowledge, asserts the Upanishad, is the goal of Upanishads.[84][85] The text asserts thatOm is a tool of meditation empowering one to know the God within oneself, to realize one's Atman (Self).[86]
The Hindu deityGanesha is sometimes referred to as "oṃkārasvarūpa" (Omkara is his form) and used as the symbol forUpanishadic concept of Brahman.[87][88]
TheGanapati Upanishad asserts that Ganesha is same as Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, all deities, the universe, andOm.[89]
(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trimurti)Brahma,Vishnu, andMahesa. You areIndra. You are fire [Agni] and air [Vāyu]. You are the sun [Sūrya] and the moon [Chandrama]. You areBrahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], andSwargaloka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).
TheJaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana, a Samavedic text, outlines a story where those who chant Om can achieve the same rewards as deities. However, the gods are concerned about humans ascending to their realm. To address this concern, a compromise is reached between the gods and Death. Humans can attain immortality, but it involves relinquishing their physical bodies to Death. This immortality entails an extended celestial existence after a long earthly life, where the practitioner aspires to acquire a divine self (atman) in a non-physical form, allowing them to reside eternally in the heavenly realm.[91]
"You are the sacrificial performance. You are the sacred syllableVashat (on hearing which theAdhvaryu priest casts the oblation to a deity into the sacrificial fire). You are the mystic syllableOM. You are higher than the highest. People neither know your end nor your origin nor who you are in reality. You appear in all created beings in the cattle and inbrahmanas. You exist in all quarters, in the sky, in mountains and in rivers."
TheBhagavad Gita, in theMahabharata, mentions the meaning and significance ofOm in several verses. According to Jeaneane Fowler, verse 9.17 of the Bhagavad Gita synthesizes the competing dualistic and monist streams of thought in Hinduism, by using "Om which is the symbol for the indescribable, impersonalBrahman".[93]
"Of this universe, I am the Father; I am also the Mother, the Sustainer, and the Grandsire. I am the purifier, the goal of knowledge, thesacred syllableOm. I am theṚig Veda,Sāma Veda, and theYajur Veda."
The significance of the sacred syllable in the Hindu traditions, is similarly highlighted in other verses of theGita, such as verse 17.24 where the importance ofOm during prayers, charity and meditative practices is explained as follows:[95]
"Therefore, utteringOm, the acts ofyagna (fire ritual),dāna (charity) andtapas (austerity) as enjoined in the scriptures, are always begun by those who study theBrahman."
TheVaishnavaGaruda Purana equates the recitation ofOm with obeisance to Vishnu.[97] According to theVayu Purana,[citation needed]Om is the representation of the HinduTrimurti, and represents the union of the three gods, viz.A forBrahma,U forVishnu andM forShiva.[98] TheBhagavata Purana (9.14.46-48) identifies thePranava as the root of all Vedic mantras, and describes the combined letters ofa-u-m as an invocation of seminal birth,initiation, and the performance of sacrifice (yajña).[99]
InŚrī Vaiṣṇava tradition, sub-traditions differ on who has eligibility to sayOṁ, but it is generally a "nonissue" as it is not necessary for salvation. The Teṉkalai division, represented byPiḷḷailokācārya in hisParantapaṭi, allow everyone to recite thepraṇava, arguing the syllable arises spontaneously from all. The Vaṭakalai division, represented byVedāntadeśika in hisRahasyatrayasāra, disallows women and śūdras from reciting thepraṇava, citing older scriptural injunctions to support the stance.[100]
InShaiva traditions, theShiva Purana highlights the relation between deityShiva and thePranava orOm. Shiva is declared to beOm, and thatOm is Shiva.[101]After this, an epithet ofShiva isOmkareshwar, the Lord,Ishvara, of oṃkāra.
Johnston states this verse highlights the importance ofOm in the meditative practice of yoga, where it symbolises the three worlds in the Self; the three times – past, present, and future eternity; the three divine powers – creation, preservation, and transformation in one Being; and three essences in one Spirit – immortality, omniscience, and joy. It is, asserts Johnston, a symbol for the perfected Spiritual Man.[105]
ओम एकाक्षर पञ्चपरमेष्ठिनामादिपम् तत्कथमिति चेत अरिहंता असरीरा आयरिया तह उवज्झाया मुणियां Oma ekākṣara pañca-parameṣṭhi-nāmā-dipam tatkathamiti cheta "arihatā asarīrā āyariyā taha uvajjhāyā muṇiyā". AAAUM [or just "Om"] is the one syllable short form of the initials of the five supreme beings [pañca-parameṣṭhi]: "Arihant,Ashariri,Acharya,Upajjhaya,Muni".[110]
By extension, the Om symbol is also used in Jainism to represent the first five lines of theNamokar mantra,[111] the most important part of the daily prayer in the Jain religion, which honours thePañca-Parameṣṭhi. These five lines are (in English): "(1.) veneration to the Arihants, (2.) veneration to the perfect ones, (3.) veneration to the masters, (4.) veneration to the teachers, (5.) veneration to all the monks in the world".[109]
In TibetanBuddhism,Om is often placed at the beginning of mantras anddharanis. Probably the most well known mantra is "Om mani padme hum", the six syllable mantra of theBodhisattva of compassion,Avalokiteśvara. This mantra is particularly associated with the four-armedṢaḍākṣarī form of Avalokiteśvara. Moreover, as a seed syllable (Bīja mantra),Om is considered sacred and holy inEsoteric Buddhism.[114]
Some scholars interpret the first word of the mantraOṃ maṇi padme hūṃ to beauṃ, with a meaning similar to Hinduism – the totality of sound, existence, and consciousness.[115][116]
Oṃ has been described by the14th Dalai Lama as "composed of three pure letters, A, U, and M. These symbolize the impurebody, speech, and mind of everyday unenlightened life of a practitioner; they also symbolize the pure exalted body, speech and mind of an enlightened Buddha".[117][118] According to Simpkins,Om is a part of many mantras in Tibetan Buddhism and is a symbolism for wholeness, perfection, and the infinite.[119]
The termA-un (阿吽) is the transliteration in Japanese of the two syllables "a" and "hūṃ", written inDevanagari asअहूँ. In Japanese, it is oftenconflated with the syllableOm. The original Sanskrit term is composed of two letters, the first (अ) and the last (ह) letters of the Devanagariabugida, withdiacritics (includinganusvara) on the latter indicating the "-ūṃ" of "hūṃ". Together, they symbolically represent the beginning and the end of all things.[122] In JapaneseMikkyō Buddhism, the letters represent the beginning and the end of the universe.[123] This is comparable toAlpha and Omega, the first and last letters of theGreek alphabet, similarly adopted byChristianity to symbolise Christ as the beginning and end of all.
The terma-un is used figuratively in some Japanese expressions as "a-un breathing" (阿吽の呼吸,a-un no kokyū) or "a-un relationship" (阿吽の仲,a-un no naka), indicating an inherently harmonious relationship ornonverbal communication.
The term is also used inBuddhist architecture andShinto to describe the paired statues common in Japanese religious settings, most notably theNiō (仁王) and thekomainu (狛犬).[122] One (usually on the right) has an open mouth regarded by Buddhists as symbolically speaking the "A" syllable; the other (usually on the left) has a closed mouth, symbolically speaking the "Un" syllable. The two together are regarded as saying "A-un". The general name for statues with an open mouth isagyō (阿形; lit. "a" shape), that for those with a closed mouthungyō (吽形; lit."'un' shape").[122]
Niō statues in Japan, and their equivalent in East Asia, appear in pairs in front of Buddhisttemple gates andstupas, in the form of two fierce looking guardian kings (Vajrapani).[120][121]
Komainu, also called lion-dogs, found in Japan, Korea and China, also occur in pairs before Buddhist temples and public spaces, and again, one has an open mouth (Agyō), the other closed (Ungyō).[124][125][126]
Ik Onkar (Punjabi:ਇੱਕ ਓਅੰਕਾਰ; iconically represented asੴ) are the first words of theMul Mantar, which is the opening verse of theGuru Granth Sahib, the Sikh scripture.[127] Combining the numeral one ("Ik") and "Onkar",Ik Onkar literally means "oneOm";[128][L] these words are a statement that there is "one God",[129] understood to refer to the "absolutemonotheistic unity of God"[127] and implying "singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence".[130][M]
According to Pashaura Singh,Onkar is used frequently as invocation in Sikh scripture; it is the foundational word (shabad), the seed of Sikh scripture, and the basis of the "whole creation of time and space".[131]
Ik Onkar is a significantname of God in the Guru Granth Sahib andGurbani, states Kohli, and occurs as "Aum" in theUpanishads and where it is understood as the abstract representation of three worlds (Trailokya) ofcreation.[132][N] According to Wazir Singh,Onkar is a "variation ofOm (Aum) of the ancient Indian scriptures (with a change in its orthography), implying the unifyingseed-force that evolves as the universe".[133]Guru Nanak wrote a poem entitledOnkar in which, states Doniger, he "attributed the origin and sense of speech to the Divinity, who is thus the Om-maker".[127]
Onkar ('the Primal Sound') createdBrahma,Onkar fashioned the consciousness, FromOnkar came mountains and ages,Onkar produced theVedas, By the grace ofOnkar, people were saved through the divine word, By the grace ofOnkar, they were liberated through the teachings of the Guru.
— Ramakali Dakkhani,Adi Granth 929-930, Translated by Pashaura Singh[131]
"Onkar" is the primordial sound/word. It is the soundless word (anahat naad oranahad naad). It is both the source as well as manifestation of the source. "Onkar" pervades the entire creation. The soundless sound is present everywhere and inside everything including us. In Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib is manifested form of this "Onkar". Hence, the Guru Granth Sahib is called "Shabad Guru". Shabad (word) is Guru and Guru itself is the Primordial Sound "Onkar" (God).[citation needed]
For both symbolic andnumerological reasons,Aleister Crowley adaptedaum into aThelemicmagical formula,AUMGN, adding a silent 'g' (as in the word 'gnosis') and a nasal 'n' to them to form thecompound letter 'MGN'; the 'g' makes explicit the silence previously only implied by the terminal 'm' while the 'n' indicates nasal vocalisation connoting the breath of life and together they connote knowledge and generation. Together these letters,MGN, have a numerological value of93, a number withpolysemic significance in Thelema.Om appears in this extended form throughout Crowley'smagical and philosophical writings, notably appearing in theGnostic Mass. Crowley discusses its symbolism briefly in section F ofLiber Samekh and in detail in chapter 7 ofMagick (Book 4).[134][135][136][137]
The Brahmic scriptOm-ligature has become widely recognized in Westerncounterculture since the 1960s, mostly in its standardDevanagari form (ॐ), but theTibetanOm (ༀ) has also gained limited currency in popular culture.[138]
Meditating and chanting ofOm can be done by first concentrating on a picture ofOm and then effortlessly mentally chanting the mantra. Meditating and mental chanting have been said[by whom?] to improve the physiological state of the person by increasing alertness and sensory sensitivity.[139][unreliable source?]
^this is a reference to thethree worlds of the Vedas
^Sanskrit original, quote:द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे मूर्तं चामूर्तं च । अथ यन्मूर्तं तदसत्यम् यदमूर्तं तत्सत्यम् तद्ब्रह्म तज्ज्योतिः यज्ज्योतिः स आदित्यः स वा एष ओमित्येतदात्माभवत्[75]
^Hume translates this as "imperishable Aksara", Max Muller translates it as "indestructible Brahman"; see:Max Muller,The Upanishads, Part 2,Mundaka Upanishad, Oxford University Press, page 36 and Robert Hume, "Thirteen Principal Upanishads"[1], page 367
^The Sanskrit word used isVyadh, which means both "penetrate" and "know"; Robert Hume uses penetrate, but mentions the second meaning; see: Robert Hume,Mundaka Upanishad,Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, page 372 with footnote 1
^Quote: "While Ek literally means One, Onkar is the equivalent of the Hindu "Om" (Aum), the one syllable sound representing the holy trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva - the God in His entirety."[128]
^Quote: "the 'a,' 'u,' and 'm' of aum have also been explained as signifying the three principles of creation, sustenance and annihilation. ... aumkār in relation to existence implies plurality, ... but its substitute Ik Onkar definitely implies singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence. ..."[130]
^Quote: "Ik Aumkara is a significant name in Guru Granth Sahib and appears in the very beginning of Mul Mantra. It occurs as Aum in the Upanishads and in Gurbani, the Onam Akshara (the letter Aum) has been considered as the abstract of three worlds (p. 930). According to Brihadaranyaka Upanishad "Aum" connotes both the transcendent and immanent Brahman."[132]
^abcJones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006).Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase Publishing. pp. 319–20.ISBN978-0-8160-7564-5.
^abBeck, Guy L. (2012).Sonic liturgy: ritual and music in Hindu tradition. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. p. 25.ISBN978-1-61117-108-2.OCLC824698506.
^abHajime Nakamura,A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120819634, page 318
^abcdefghAnnette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011),Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, De Gruyter,ISBN978-3110181593, pages 435–456
^abDavid White (2011),Yoga in Practice, Princeton University Press,ISBN978-0691140865, pp. 104–111
^abAlexander Studholme (2012),The Origins of Om Manipadme Hum: A Study of the Karandavyuha Sutra, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0791453902, pages 1–4
^T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993),Elements of Hindu Iconography, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120808775, p. 248
^Sehdev Kumar (2001),A Thousand Petalled Lotus: Jain Temples of Rajasthan,ISBN978-8170173489, p. 5
^Jan Gonda (1963),The Indian Mantra, Oriens, Vol. 16, pp. 244–297
^Parpola, Asko (2015).The Roots of Hinduism : the Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization. New York.ISBN9780190226909.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Roy, Ankita (2011).Rediscovering the Brahmi Script(PDF). Bombay: Industrial Design Center, IDC, IIT. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 3 October 2015. See the section, "Ancient Symbols".
^Deussen, Paul, ed. (1980).Sixty Upanishads of the Veda. Vol. 1. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 347.ISBN978-8120814684.
^Cowell, E.B. (ed.).Maitri Upanishad: Sanskrit Text with English Translation. Bibliotheca Indica. Translated by Cowell, E.B. Cambridge University Press. p. 258.
^Mundaka Upanishad, in Upanishads and Sri Sankara's commentary – Volume 1:The Isa Kena and Mundaka, SS Sastri (Translator), University of Toronto Archives, page 144 with section in 138-152
^abcdefPaul Deussen,Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120814691, pages 605-637
^Esnoul, A.M. (2005). "Oṃ".Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd ed.). USA: Macmillan Reference. pp. 6820–6821.ISBN9780028659978.
^"14, King Purūravā Enchanted by Urvaśī".Bhāgavata Purāṇa, Canto 9. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust International, Inc.
^Young, Katherine K. "Theology Does Help Women's Liberation". In Rosen, Steven J. (ed.).Vaiṣṇavī: Women and the Worship of Krishna. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 242–243.
^Beck, Guy (1995).Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 154.ISBN978-8120812611.
^Rocher, Ludo (1986).The Purāṇas. Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz.ISBN978-3447025225.
^"Adi Parashakti - The Divine Mother".TemplePurohit - Your Spiritual Destination Bhakti, Shraddha Aur Ashirwad. 1 August 2018. Retrieved26 May 2021.
^abSingh, Pashaura (2014). "Gurmat: The Teachings of the Gurus". In Singh, Pashaura; Fenech, Louis E. (eds.).The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies. Oxford University Press. p. 227.ISBN978-0199699308.
^abKohli, S.S. (1993).The Sikh and Sikhism. Atlantic. p. 35.ISBN81-71563368.
^Singh, Wazir (1969). "Guru Nanak's philosophy".Journal of Religious Studies.1 (1): 56.
^Crowley, Aleister.Liber Samekh. Internet Sacred Text Archive. Retrieved27 May 2021.
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Kumar, Uttam; Guleria, Anupam; Khetrapal, Chunni Lal (2015). "Neuro-cognitive aspects of "OM" sound/syllable perception: A functional neuroimaging study".Cognition and Emotion.29 (3):432–441.doi:10.1080/02699931.2014.917609.PMID24845107.S2CID20292351.
Stein, Joel (4 August 2003)."Just say Om"(PDF).Time Magazine.
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