Oligarchy (from Ancient Greekὀλιγαρχία (oligarkhía)'rule by few'; from ὀλίγος (olígos)'few' and ἄρχω (árkhō)'to rule, command')[1][2][3] is a form ofgovernment in whichpower rests with a small number of people. Leaders of such regimes are often referred to asoligarchs, and generally are characterized by having titles ofnobility or high amounts ofwealth.[4][5]
The consolidation of power by adominant minority, whether religious or ethnic, can be considered a form of oligarchy.[6] In these cases, oligarchic rule was often tied to the legacy of colonialism.[6]
In the early 20th century,Robert Michels expanded on this idea in hisiron law of oligarchy, arguing that even democracies, like all large organizations, tend to become oligarchic due to the necessity of dividing labor, which ultimately results in a ruling class focused on maintaining its power.[7][8]
George Bernard Shaw coined the concept of an intellectual oligarchy in his playMajor Barbara (1907). In the play, Shaw criticizes the control of society by intellectual elites and expresses a desire for the empowerment of the common people:[10]
I now want to give the common man weapons against the intellectual man. I love the common people. I want to arm them against the lawyer, the doctor, the priest, the literary man, the professor, the artist, and the politician, who, once in authority, is the most dangerous, disastrous, and tyrannical of all the fools, rascals, and impostors. I want a democratic power strong enough to force the intellectual oligarchy to use its genius for the general good or else perish.
TheAncient Greek wordoligarchia is used by historians ofAncient Greece to describe the position of theEupatridae, the aristocratic elite, of thecity-state ofAthens.[12] However, in the mid-6th century BC, thetyrantPisistratus dismantled this structure and replaced it with a semi-popularautocratic system. As Pisistratus was succeeded by his two sons,Hippias andHipparchus, the tyranny became increasingly more unpopular in Athens, especially among the aristocracy.[13]
In 510 BC, the influential and exiled Athenian aristocratCleisthenes, of the powerfulAlcmaeonid clan, convinced KingCleomenes I ofSparta to invade Athens, in order to overthrow Hippias. Cleomenes installedIsagoras, Cleisthenes's rival, as an oligarch.[14] Over the next few years, Cleisthenes and Isagoras entered into a power struggle.[15] With Isagoras calling for theSpartans to return to the city in support of him, Cleisthenes mobilised themiddle class and overthrew Isagoras in the 508–507 BCAthenian Revolution. Cleisthenes' reforms laid the foundation forAthenian democracy.[16]
Reaction against the Spartanhegemony also turned several oligarchies in thePeloponnese into democracies.[17] However, the elite soon came into conflict with the people, ordemos, specifically inAegina,Syracuse, andNaxos in the 500s and 490s BC.[18] Soon many city-states had settled into a fairly constant system ofplutocracy (rule by the rich), with thedemos being used periodically by the weaker party and otherwise being out of power.[19] Many nominally democratic Greek city-states, despite frequent revolt by thedemos, remained firmly controlled by the wealthy elite, who spurned attempts to allow commoners into power.[20]
In 493 BC, a member of the middle class[a] namedThemistocles becamearchon. This may not have led to any political change on its own, but Themistocles, to counter the threat of the risingPersians to the east, greatly increased the power of theAthenian navy, which allowed the lower classes, through their military might, to influence Athenian politics. The first of a group of Athenianpopulists,[25] Themistocles ruled Athens for over twenty years, and is best known as the victor of theGreco-Persian Wars.[26]
When Themistocles fell from power around 471 BC, theAreopagus, an aristocratic council which was formerly the most powerful body in Athens, began to gain more prominence, spearheaded by theconservative politicianCimon, astrategos who oversaw an aggressiveexpansionist policy for theAthenian Empire amid closer relations with Sparta. Cimon's failed attempt to provide military aid to Sparta caused him to lose the support of the Athenians, allowing the democratic faction to make a bid for power.[27] In 461 BC, politicianEphialtes, who supportedradical democracy, proposed a law to limit the Areopagus' powers, which theecclesia, or Assembly, passed unanimously.[28] The ancientboule, or Council of Five Hundred, which had also existed under the old oligarchy, but whose membership had been changed from being hereditary to being chosen by lot, took over its remaining functions.[29] Cimon wasostracized for ten years by Ephialtes and his supporters.[28]
Ephialtes wasassassinated in 461 BC, possibly by the aristocrats.[30] In the aftermath of Ephialtes' death, power in Athens was consolidated by hisprotegé,Pericles, an influential Alcmaeonid, who had such an impact on Athens as a city-state that the entire fifth century in Athens is sometimes simply called theAge of Pericles.[29] Pericles led Athens for over thirty years, presiding over theDelian League during theFirst Peloponnesian War with Sparta.[31] After theThirty Years' Peace was concluded with Sparta in 445 BC,Thucydides, son of Melesias (not to be confused withThucydides the historian), a relative of Cimon and the new head of the conservative faction, attempted to gain power using the Ecclesia. Pericles' powerfuloratory instead led to Thucydides' being ostracised.[32]
During thepresidency of Ferdinand Marcos from 1965 to 1986, several monopolies arose in the Philippines, primarily linked to theMarcos family and their close associates. Analysts have described this period, and even subsequent decades, as an era of oligarchy in the Philippines.[34][35][36][37]
PresidentRodrigo Duterte, elected in 2016, promised to dismantle the oligarchy during his presidency.[38][37] However, corporate oligarchy persisted throughout his tenure. While Duterte criticized prominent tycoons such as theAyalas andManny Pangilinan, corporate figures allied with Duterte, includingDennis Uy ofUdenna Corporation, benefitted during his administration.[39]
After thedissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequentprivatization of state-owned assets, a class of Russianbusiness oligarchs emerged. These oligarchs gained control of significant portions of the economy, especially in the energy, metals, and natural resources sectors.[40] Many of these individuals maintained close ties with government officials, particularly thepresident, leading some to characterize modern Russia as an oligarchy intertwined with the state.[41]
In 1996, fearing the possible victory of theCommunist Party, the oligarchs, especially theSeven Bankers, funded and substantially supportedBoris Yeltsin'sre-election campaign inthat year's election, continuing to manipulate him and exert influence over his government over the next several years.[42] After Yeltsin's successor,Vladimir Putin, came to power in 1999, he cracked down on many oligarchs, arresting several fortax evasion and forcing others into exile.[43] By the end of the 2000s decade, however, Putin had created a new class of oligarchs consisting mainly of his own personal friends and colleagues, continuing to crack down on those who opposed him.[44] According toNPR, he "changed the guy sitting in [the] chairs, but he didn't change the chairs".[45]
TheIslamic Republic of Iran, established after the 1979Iranian Revolution, is sometimes described as a clerical oligarchy. Its ruling system, known asVelayat-e-Faqih (Governance of the Jurists), places power in the hands of a small group of high-rankingShia clerics, led by theSupreme Leader. This group holds significant influence over the country's legislative, military, and economic affairs, and critics argue that this system concentrates power in a religious elite, marginalizing other voices within society.[46][47] The Iranian government has also intensified its surveillance efforts to suppress dissent, particularly targeting women and human rights activists. The "Noor plan," implemented in April 2024, has led to increased policing and criminal prosecution against women defying mandatory hijab laws.[48]
Since Ukraine's independence in 1991, a powerful class of business elites, known asUkrainian oligarchs, have played a significant role in the country's politics and economy. These oligarchs gained control of state assets during the rapid privatization that followed the collapse of the Soviet Union.[9] PresidentLeonid Kuchma'smulti-vector policy, which favored close relations with both the West and Russia, was seen as appeasing both groups' oligarchical business interests.[49] In 2021, Ukraine passed a law aimed at curbing oligarchic influence on politics and the economy.[8][50]
Several commentators and scholars have suggested that the United States demonstrates characteristics of an oligarchy, particularly in relation to the concentration of wealth and political influence among a small elite,[51][52][53][54][55][56] as exemplified by the list of top donors to political parties.[57][58][59]
EconomistSimon Johnson argued that the rise of an American financial oligarchy became particularly prominent following the 2008 financial crisis.[60] This financial elite has been described as wielding significant power over both the economy and political decisions. Former PresidentJimmy Carter in 2015 characterized the United States as an "oligarchy with unlimited political bribery" following the 2010Citizens United v. FEC Supreme Court decision, which removed limits on donations to political campaigns.[61]
In 2014, a study by political scientists Martin Gilens ofPrinceton University andBenjamin Page ofNorthwestern University argued that the United States' political system does not primarily reflect the preferences of its average citizens. Their analysis of policy outcomes between 1981 and 2002 suggested that wealthy individuals and business groups held substantial influence over political decisions, often sidelining the majority of Americans.[62] While the United States maintains democratic features such as regular elections, freedom of speech, and widespread suffrage, the study noted that policy decisions are disproportionately influenced by economic elites.[63] However, the study received criticism from other scholars, who argued that the influence of average citizens should not be discounted and that the conclusions about oligarchic tendencies were overstated.[64] Gilens and Page defended their research, reiterating that while they do not label the United States an outright oligarchy, they found substantial evidence of economic elites dominating certain areas of policy-making.[65]
^Plutarch described his birth as "lowly",[21] and his family as "too obscure to further his reputation".[22] He is known to have not been a citizen at birth, as his mother was not Athenian;[23] however, his father was descended from an Athenian priestly family, the Lycomidae.[24]
^Shaw, Bernard und Baziyan, Vitaly. 2-in-1: English-German. Major Barbara & Major in Barbara. New York, 2020,ISBN979-8692881076
^Winters (2011) pp. 26–28. "Aristotle writes that 'oligarchy is when men of property have the government in their hands... wherever men rule by reason of their wealth, whether they be few or many, that is an oligarchy, and where the poor rule, that is a democracy'."
^Rosivach, Vincent J. (1988). "The Tyrant in Athenian Democracy".Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica.30 (3):43–57.doi:10.2307/20546964.JSTOR20546964.
^Hayek, Friedrich A. von (1960).The Constitution of Liberty. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 238–242.ISBN0-226-32084-7.OCLC498999.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Bagnall, Nigel (2006).The Inter-War Years 480-431 BC – The Peloponnesian War: Athens, Sparta and the Struggle for Greece. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. p. 123.
^Mendoza, Ronald U.; Bulaong, Oscar Jr.; Mendoza, Gabrielle Ann S. (1 February 2022). "Cronyism, Oligarchy and Governance in the Philippines: 1970s vs 2020s".SSRN4032259.
^Kazemzadeh, Masoud (2020).Iran's Foreign Policy: Elite Factionalism, Ideology, the Nuclear Weapons Program, and the United States. New York: Routledge. pp. 1–19.ISBN978-0-367-49545-9.
^Amuzager, Jahangir (2014).The Islamic Republic of Iran: Reflections on an Emerging Economy. New York: Routledge. pp. 48–50,88–89.ISBN978-1-85743-748-5.
^Riabchuk, Mykola (2012). "Ukraine's 'muddling through': National identity and postcommunist transition".Communist and Post-Communist Studies.45 (3–4):439–446.doi:10.1016/j.postcomstud.2012.06.007.
Osnos, Evan, "Oligarch-in-Chief: The greed of the Trump Administration has galvanized America's ultra-rich – and their opponents",The New Yorker, 2 June 2025, pp. 32–39.
Ostwald, M. (2000),Oligarchia: The Development of a Constitutional Form in Ancient Greece (Historia Einzelschirften; 144). Stuttgart: Steiner,ISBN3515076808.
