The region where Old French was spoken natively roughly extended to the northern half of theKingdom of France and its vassals (including parts of theAngevin Empire), and the duchies ofUpper andLower Lorraine to the east (corresponding to modern north-easternFrance and BelgianWallonia), but the influence of Old French was much wider, as it was carried toEngland and theCrusader states as the language of a feudal elite and commerce.[3]
Map of France in 1180, at the height of thefeudal system. Thecrown lands of France are in light blue, vassals to the French king in green,Angevin possessions in red. Shown in white is theHoly Roman Empire to the east, the western fringes of which, includingUpper Burgundy andLorraine, were also part of the Old French area.
As part of the emergingGallo-Romance dialect continuum, thelangues d'oïl were contrasted with thelangues d'oc, at the time also called "Provençal", adjacent to the Old French area in the southwest, and with theGallo-Italic group to the southeast. TheFranco-Provençal group developed in Upper Burgundy, sharing features with both French and Provençal; it may have begun to diverge from thelangue d'oïl as early as the late 8th century and is attested as a distinct Gallo-Romance variety by the 12th century.
Old Norman, inNormandy, whose principal cities wereCaen andRouen. TheNorman Conquest of England brought many Norman-speaking aristocrats intoBritain. Most of the older Norman (sometimes called "French") words inEnglish reflect its influence, which became a conduit for the introduction into the Anglo-Norman realm, as did Anglo-Norman control of Anjou and Gascony and other continental possessions.Anglo-Norman was a language that reflected a shared culture on both sides of theEnglish Channel.[5] Ultimately, the language declined and fell, becomingLaw French, a jargon spoken by lawyers that was used inEnglish law until the reign ofCharles II of England; however, Norman varieties still survive in Normandy and theChannel Islands as regional languages:Jèrriais,Guernésiais,Sercquiais, andAuregnais
Beginning withPlautus' time (254–184b.c.), one can see phonological changes betweenClassical Latin and what is calledVulgar Latin, the common spoken language of theWestern Roman Empire. Vulgar Latin differed from Classical Latin inphonology andmorphology as well as exhibiting lexical differences; however, they were mutually intelligible until the 7th century when Classical Latin "died" as a daily spoken language, and had to be learned as a second language (though it was long thought of as the formal version of the spoken language).[6]: 109–115 Vulgar Latin was the ancestor of theRomance languages, including Old French.[7][8][9][10][11]
By the late 8th century, when theCarolingian Renaissance began, native speakers of Romance idioms continued to use Romanceorthoepy rules while speaking and reading Latin. When the most prominent scholar of Western Europe at the time, English deaconAlcuin, was tasked byCharlemagne with improving the standards of Latin writing in France, not being a native Romance speaker himself, he prescribed a pronunciation based on a fairly literal interpretation of Latin spelling. For example, in a radical break from the traditional system, a word such as⟨viridiarium⟩'orchard' now had to be read aloud precisely as it was spelled rather than*/verdʒjær/ (later spelled asOF'vergier').[12]
Such a radical change had the effect of rendering Latinsermons completely unintelligible to the general Romance-speaking public, which prompted officials a few years later, at theThird Council of Tours, to instruct priests to read sermons aloud in the old way, inrusticam romanam linguam or 'plain Roman[ce] speech'.[13]
As there was now no unambiguous way to indicate whether a given text was to be read aloud as Latin or Romance, various attempts were made in France to devise a new orthography for the latter; among the earliest examples are parts of theOaths of Strasbourg and theSequence of Saint Eulalia.
SomeGaulish words influenced Vulgar Latin and, through this, other Romance languages. For example, classical Latinequus was uniformly replaced in Vulgar Latin bycaballus 'nag, work horse', derived from Gaulishcaballos (cf.Welshceffyl,Bretonkefel),[14]: 96 yieldingModFcheval, Occitancaval (chaval), Catalancavall, Spanishcaballo, Portuguesecavalo, Italiancavallo, Romaniancal, and, by extension, Englishcavalry andchivalry (both via different forms of [Old] French:Old Norman andFrancien).An estimated 200 words of Gaulish etymology survive in Modern French, for examplechêne'oak tree' andcharrue'plough'.[15]
TheCelticGaulish language is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable cultural Romanization.[17]Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape theVulgar Latin dialects that developed into French, with effects including loanwords andcalques (includingoui,[18] the word for "yes"),[19] sound changes shaped by Gaulish influence,[20][21] and influences in conjugation and word order.[19][22][23] A computational study from 2003 suggests that early gender shifts may have been motivated by the gender of the corresponding word in Gaulish.[24]
The pronunciation, vocabulary, and syntax of the Vulgar Latin spoken inRoman Gaul inlate antiquity were modified by theOld Frankish language, spoken by theFranks who settled in Gaul from the 5th century and conquered the future Old French-speaking area by the 530s. The wordfrançais itself is derived from theLate Latin name for the Franks.
The Old Frankish language had a definitive influence on the development of Old French, which partly explains why the earliest attested Old French documents are older than the earliest attestations in other Romance languages (e.g.Strasbourg Oaths,Sequence of Saint Eulalia).[25] It is the result of an earlier gap created between Classical Latin and its evolved forms, which slowly reduced and eventually severed themutual intelligibility between the two. TheOld Low Franconian influence is also believed to be responsible for the differences between thelangue d'oïl and thelangue d'oc (Occitan), being that various parts of Northern France remained bilingual between Latin and Germanic for some time,[26] and these areas correspond precisely to where the first documents in Old French were written.
This Germanic language shaped the popular Latin spoken here and gave it a very distinctive identity compared to the other future Romance languages. The first noticeable influence is the substitution of the Latin melodic accent[clarification needed] with a Germanic stress[27] and its result wasdiphthongization, differentiation between long and short vowels, the fall of the unaccented syllable and of the final vowels:
Mildred Pope estimated that perhaps still 15% of the vocabulary of Modern French derives from Germanic sources. This proportion was larger in Old French, becauseMiddle French borrowed heavily from Latin and Italian.[29]
The earliest documents said to be written in the Gallo-Romance that prefigures French – after theReichenau andKassel glosses (8th and 9th centuries) – are theOaths of Strasbourg (treaties and charters into which KingCharles the Bald entered in 842):
Pro Deo amur et pro Christian poblo et nostro commun salvament, d'ist di en avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si salvarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo, et in aiudha et in cadhuna cosa ...
(For the love of God and for the Christian people, and our common salvation, from this day forward, as God will give me the knowledge and the power, I will defend my brother Karlo with my help in everything ...)
The second-oldest document in Old French is theEulalia sequence, which is important for linguistic reconstruction of Old French pronunciation due to its consistent spelling.
The royalHouse of Capet, founded byHugh Capet in 987, inaugurated the development of northern French culture in and aroundÎle-de-France, which slowly but firmly asserted its ascendency over the more southerly areas ofAquitaine and Tolosa (Toulouse); however, theCapetians'langue d'oïl, the forerunner of modern standard French, did not begin to become the common speech of all of France until after theFrench Revolution.
In the Late Middle Ages, the Old French dialects diverged into a number of distinctlangues d'oïl, among whichMiddle French proper was the dialect of theÎle-de-France region.During theEarly Modern period, French was established as the official language of the Kingdom of France throughout the realm, including thelangue d'oc–speaking territories in the south.It was only in the 17th to 18th centuries – with the development especially of popular literature of theBibliothèque bleue – that a standardizedClassical French spread throughout France alongside the regional dialects.
The earliest extant French literary texts date from the ninth century, but very few texts before the 11th century have survived. The first literary works written in Old French weresaints' lives. TheCanticle of Saint Eulalie, written in the second half of the 9th century, is generally accepted as the first such text. Further, some of the earliest medieval music has lyrics in Old French, composed by the earliest composers known by name.
A fourth grouping, not listed by Bertrand, is theCrusade cycle, dealing with theFirst Crusade and its immediate aftermath.
Jean Bodel's other two categories—the "Matter of Rome" and the "Matter of Britain"—concern the Frenchromance orroman. Around a hundred verse romances survive from the period 1150–1220.[31] From around 1200 on, the tendency was increasingly to write the romances in prose (many of the earlier verse romances were adapted into prose versions), although new verse romances continued to be written to the end of the 14th century.[32]
The most important romance of the 13th century is theRomance of the Rose, which breaks considerably from the conventions of the chivalric adventure story.
Medieval Frenchlyric poetry began in the late 11th century, arising from the poetic and cultural traditions inSouthern France andProvence—includingToulouse and theAquitaine region, and flourished until the end of the 13th century. These first lyric poets composed and performed in Old Provençal (Old Occitan) and were calledtroubadors from the verbtrobar "to compose, to discuss, to invent". The French wordtroubadour is borrowed from this Occitan word. Inspired by the Provençal poets, lyric poetry spread to their Northern French counterparts, who instead spokelangues d'oïl and were known astrouvères. It is thought that the Provençal troubadours were originally influenced by music and poetry from theHispano-Arab world.[citation needed]
By the late 13th century, the poetic tradition in France had begun to develop in ways that differed significantly from the troubadour poets, both in content and in the use of certain fixed forms. The new poetic (and musical) tendencies are apparent in theRoman de Fauvel in 1310 and 1314, a satire on abuses in the medieval church, filled with medievalmotets,lais,rondeaux and other new secular forms of poetry and music (mostly anonymous, but with several pieces byPhilippe de Vitry, who would coin the expressionars nova to distinguish the new musical practice from the music of the immediately preceding age). The best-known poet and composer ofars nova secular music and chansons of the incipientMiddle French period wasGuillaume de Machaut.
Discussions about the origins of non-religious theater (théâtre profane)—both drama and farce—in the Middle Ages remain controversial, but the idea of a continuous popular tradition stemming from Latin comedy and tragedy to the 9th century seems unlikely.
A large body offables survive in Old French; these include (mostly anonymous) literature dealing with the recurring trickster character ofReynard theFox. Marie de France was also active in this genre, producing theYsopet (LittleAesop) series of fables in verse. Related to the fable was the more bawdyfabliau, which covered topics such as cuckolding and corrupt clergy. Thesefabliaux would be an important source forChaucer and for the Renaissance short story (conte ornouvelle).
In northern Italy, authors developedFranco-Italian, a mixed language of Old French andVenetian orLombard used in literary works in the 13th and 14th centuries.
Old French was constantly changing and evolving; however, the form in the late 12th century, as attested in a great deal of mostly poetic writings, can be considered standard. The writing system at this time was more phonetic than that used in most subsequent centuries. In particular, all written consonants (including final ones) were pronounced, except fors preceding non-stop consonants andt inet, and finale was pronounced[ə]. The phonological system can be summarised as follows:[33]
/ts/ had three spellings –c beforee ori,ç before other vowels, orz at the end of a word – as seen incent,chançon,priz ("a hundred, song, price").
/dz/ was written asz, as indoze'twelve', and occurred only in the middle of the word.
/ʎ/ (lmouillé), as inconseil,travaillier ("advice, to work"), became/j/ inModern French.
/ɲ/ appeared not only in the middle of a word but also at the end, as inpoing'fist'. At the end of a word,/ɲ/ was later lost, leaving anasalized vowel.
/h/ was found only in Germanic loanwords or words influenced by Germanic (cf.haut, hurler). It was later lost as a consonant, though it wastransphonologized as the so-calledaspirated h that blocksliaison. In native Latin words,/h/ had been lost early on, as inom,uem, fromLathomō.
Intervocalic/d/ from both Latin/t/ and/d/ waslenited to[ð] in the early period (cf. contemporary Spanish:amado[aˈmaðo]). At the end of words, it was also devoiced to[θ]. In some texts it was sometimes written asdh orth (aiudha, cadhuna, Ludher, vithe). By 1100 it disappeared altogether.[34]
/o/ had formerly existed but then closed to/u/; the original Western Romance/u/ having previously been fronted to/y/ across most of what is now France and northern Italy.
/o/ would later appear again when/aw/monophthongized and also when/ɔ/ closed in certain positions (such as when it was followed by original/s/ or/z/ but not by/ts/, which later became/s/).
/ə̃/ may have existed in the unstressed third-person plural verb ending-ent, but it may have already passed to/ə/, which is known to have happened no later than the Middle French period.
In Early Old French (up to about the mid-12th century), the spelling⟨ai⟩ represented a diphthong/aj/ instead of the latermonophthong/ɛ/,[35] and⟨ei⟩ represented the diphthong/ej/, which merged with/oj/ in Late Old French (except when it was nasalized).
In Early Old French, the diphthongs described above as "rising" may have been falling diphthongs (/ie̯/,/yj/,/ue̯/). In earlier works with vowelassonance, the diphthong written⟨ie⟩ did not assonate with any pure vowels, which suggests that it cannot have simply been/je/.
The pronunciation of the vowels written⟨ue⟩ and⟨eu⟩ is debated. In the first records of Early Old French, they represented and were written as/uo/,/ou/, and byMiddle French, they had both merged as/ø~œ/, but the transitional pronunciations are unclear.
Early Old French had additional triphthongs/iej/ and/uoj/ (equivalent to diphthongs followed by/j/); these soon merged into/i/ and/ɥi/ respectively.
In addition to diphthongs, Old French had many instances ofhiatus between adjacent vowels because of the loss of an intervening consonant. Manuscripts generally do not distinguish hiatus from true diphthongs, but modern scholarly transcription indicates it with adiaeresis, as in Modern French:
Charles li reis, nostre emperedre magnes, Set anz toz pleins at estét en Espaigne. Tres qu'en la mer conquist la tere altaigne, Chastel n'i at ki devant lui remaignet. Murs ne citét n'i est remés a fraindre, Fors Sarragoce qu'est en une montaigne; Li reis Marsilies la tient, ki Deu nen aimet, Mahomet sert ed Apolin reclaimet: Ne·s poet guarder que mals ne l'i ataignet![37]
Charles the king, our great emperor, Has been in Spain for seven full years. He has conquered the lofty land up to the sea, No castle remains standing before him. No wall or city is left to destroy, Other than Saragossa, which lies atop a mountain; King Marsilie is its master, he who loves not God, He serves Mohammed and worships Apollo: [Still] he cannot prevent harm from reaching him!
Old French maintained a two-case system, with anominative case and anoblique case, for longer than some other Romance languages asSpanish andItalian did. Case distinctions, at least in the masculinegender, were marked on both thedefinite article and the noun itself. Thus, the masculine nounli veisins'the neighbour'[ii] was declined as follows:
Evolution of the nominal masculine inflection from Classical Latin to Old French
In a few cases in which the only distinction between forms was the nominative-s ending, the-s was preserved. An example isfils'son' (< Latin nominativefīlius). It is irregular that the-s in the word is still pronounced today; but this has to do with later developments — namely theMiddle French and Early Modern French system ofpausal pronunciations.
Class I is derived from the Latinfirst declension. Class Ia mostly comes from Latin feminine nouns in thethird declension. Class II is derived from the Latinsecond declension. Class IIa generally stems from second-declension nouns ending in-er and from third-declension masculine nouns; in both cases, the Latin nominative singular did not end in-s, which is preserved in Old French.
Class III nouns show a separate stem in the nominative singular that does not occur in any of the other forms:
IIIa nouns areagent nouns that ended in-ātor,-ātōrem in Latin and preserve the stress shift.
IIIb nouns also had a stress shift, from-ō to-ōnem although several IIIb nouns actually continueFrankishweak nouns with a similar inflection: Frankish*barō ~*baran becomesOFber ~baron.
IIIc nouns are an Old French creation and have no clear Latin antecedent.
IIId nouns represent various other third-declension Latin nouns with stress shift or a change of consonant (soror,sorōrem;īnfāns, īnfāntem; presbyter, presbyterem; seiior, seiiōrem; comes, comitem).
Regular feminine forms of masculine nouns are formed by adding an-e to the masculine stem unless the masculine stem already ends in-e. For example,bergier'shepherd' becomesbergiere (ModFberger andbergère).
Adjectives agree in terms ofnumber, gender and case with the noun that they are qualifying. Thus, a feminine plural noun in the nominative case requires any qualifying adjectives to be feminine, plural and nominative. For example, infemes riches,riche has to be in the feminine plural form.
Adjectives can be divided into three declensional classes:[39]
Class I adjectives have a feminine singular form (nominative and oblique) ending in-e. They can be further subdivided into two subclasses, based on the masculine nominative singular form. Class Ia adjectives have a masculine nominative singular ending in-s:
For Class Ib adjectives, the masculine nominative singular ends in-e, like the feminine. There are descendants of Latin second- and third-declension adjectives ending in-er in the nominative singular:
In later Old French, Classes II and III tended to be moved across to Class I, which was complete by Middle French. Modern French thus has only a single adjective declension, unlike most other Romance languages, which have two or more.
Verbs in Old French show the same extreme phonological deformations as other Old French words; however, morphologically, Old French verbs are extremely conservative in preserving intact most of the Latin alternations and irregularities that had been inherited inProto-Romance. Old French has much less analogical reformation than Modern French has and significantly less than the oldest stages of other languages (such asOld Spanish) despite that the variousphonological developments in Gallo-Romance and Proto-French led to complex alternations in the majority of commonly-used verbs.
The alternationje lef ~tu leves is a regular result of the finaldevoicing triggered by loss of final /o/ but not /a/.
The alternationtu laver ~tu leves is a regular result of the diphthongization of a stressedopen syllable /a/ into /ae/ >/æ/ >/e/.
The alternationje lef ~tu les ~il let in the subjunctive is a regular result of the simplification of the final clusters /fs/ and /ft/, resulting from loss of /e/ in final syllables.
In Latin, stress was determined automatically by the number of syllables in a word and theweight (length) of the syllables. That resulted in certain automatic stress shifts between related forms in a paradigm, depending on the nature of the suffixes added. For example, inpensō'I think', the first syllable was stressed, but inpensāmus'we think', the second syllable was stressed. In many Romance languages, vowels diphthongized in stressed syllables under certain circumstances but not in unstressed syllables, resulting in alternations in verb paradigms:Spanishpienso'I think' vs.pensamos'we think' (pensar'to think'), orcuento'I tell' vs.contamos'we tell' (contar'to tell').
In the development of French, at least five vowels diphthongized in stressed,open syllables. Combined with other stress-dependent developments, that yielded 15 or so types of alternations in so-calledstrong verbs in Old French. For example,/a/ diphthongized to/ai/ beforenasal stops in stressed, open syllables but not in unstressed syllables, yieldingaim'I love' (Latamō) butamons'we love' (Latamāmus).
The different types are as follows:
Vowel alternations in Old French verbs
Vowel alternation
Environment
Example (-er conjugation)
Example (other conjugation)
Stressed
Unstressed
Latin etymon
3rd singular pres. ind.
Infinitive
meaning
Latin etymon
3rd singular pres. ind.
Infinitive / Other form
meaning
/e/
/a/
free/a/
lavāre
leve
laver
"to wash"
parere > *parīre
pert
parir
"to give birth"
/ãj̃/
/ã/
free/a/ + nasal
amāre
aime
amer
"to love"
manēre
maint
maneir,manoir
"to remain"
/je/
/e/
palatal + free/a/
*accapāre
achieve
achever
"to achieve"
/i/
/e/
palatal +/a/ + palatal
*concacāre
conchie
concheer
"to expel"
iacēre
gist
gesir
"to lie (down)"
/a/
/e/
palatal + blocked/a/
*accapitāre
achate
acheter
"to buy"
cadere > *cadēre
chiet
cheoir
"to fall"
/a/
/e/
intertonic/a/ + palatal?
*tripaliāre
travaille
traveillier
"to torment, make suffer"
/je/
/e/
free/ɛ/
levāre
lieve
lever
"to raise"
sedēre
siet
seeir,seoir
"to sit; suit, be fitting"
/jẽ/
/ẽ/
free/ɛ/ + nasal
tremere > *cremere
crient
creindre (var.cremir, -oir)
"to fear"
/i/
/ej/
/ɛ/ + palatal
pretiāre
prise
preiser
"to value"
exīre
ist
eissir
"to exit, go out"
/ɛ/
/e/
intertonic/ɛ,e/ + double cons.
appellāre
apele
apeler
"to call"
/oj/
/e/
free/e/
adhaerāre > *adēsāre
adoise
adeser
"to touch"
/ẽj̃/
/ẽ/
free/e/ + nasal
mināre
meine
mener
"to lead"
/i/
/e/
palatal + free/e/
/oj/
/i/
intertonic/e/ + palatal
–
charroie
charrier
"to cart around"
/we/
/u/
free/ɔ/
*tropāre
trueve
truver
"to invent, discover"
morī > *morīre
muert
mourir
"to die"
/uj/
/oj/
/ɔ/ + palatal
*appodiāre
apuie
apoiier
"to lean"
/ew/
/u/
free/o/
dēmōrārī
demeure
demo(u)rer
"to stay"
cōnsuere > *cōsere
queust
co(u)sdre
"to sew"
/u/
/e/
intertonic blocked/o/
*corruptiāre
courouce
courecier
"to get angry"
/ũ/
/ã/
intertonic blocked/o/ + nasal
calumniārī
chalonge
chalengier
"to challenge"
In Modern French, the verbs in the-er class have been systematicallylevelled. Generally, the "weak" (unstressed) form predominates, but there are some exceptions (such as modernaimer/nous aimons). The only remaining alternations are in verbs likeacheter/j'achète andjeter/je jette, with unstressed/ə/ alternating with stressed/ɛ/ and in (largely-learned) verbs likeadhérer/j'adhère, with unstressed/e/ alternating with stressed/ɛ/. Many of the non-er verbs have become obsolete, and many of the remaining verbs have been levelled; however, a few alternations remain in what are now known asirregular verbs, such asje tiens,nous tenons;je dois,nous devons; andje meurs,nous mourons.
Some verbs had a more irregular alternation between different-length stems, with a longer, stressed stem alternating with a shorter, unstressed stem. That was a regular development stemming from the loss of unstressedintertonic vowels, which remained when they were stressed:
^Battye, Adrian; Hintze, Marie-Anne; Rowlett, Paul (2000).The French Language Today (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 12.ISBN978-1-136-90328-1. [2-4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to talk of the beginnings of French, that is, when it was deemed no longer make to think of the varieties spoken in Gaul as Latin. Although a precise date can't be given, there is a general consensus (see Wright 1982, 1991, Lodge 1993) that an awareness of a vernacular, distinct from Latin, emerged at the end of the eighth century.]
^Lusignan, Serge (2004).La langue des rois au Moyen Âge: Le français en France et en Angleterre [The language of kings in the Middle Ages: French in France and England] (in French). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
^Jozsef, Herman (1997). "The end of the history of Latin".Vulgar Latin. Translated by Wright, Roger. Pennsylvania State University Press.ISBN0-271-02000-8.
^Laurence Hélix (2011).Histoire de la langue française. Ellipses Edition Marketing S.A. p. 7.ISBN978-2-7298-6470-5.Le déclin du Gaulois et sa disparition ne s'expliquent pas seulement par des pratiques culturelles spécifiques: Lorsque les Romains conduits par César envahirent la Gaule, au 1er siecle avant J.-C., celle-ci romanisa de manière progressive et profonde. Pendant près de 500 ans, la fameuse période gallo-romaine, le gaulois et le latin parlé coexistèrent; au VIe siècle encore; le temoignage de Grégoire de Tours atteste la survivance de la langue gauloise.
^Peter Schrijver,Studies in the History of Celtic Pronouns and Particles, Maynooth, 1997, 15.
^abSavignac, Jean-Paul (2004).Dictionnaire Français-Gaulois. Paris: La Différence. p. 26.
^Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", inMunus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii, eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995.
^Eugeen Roegiest,Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania (Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83.
^Matasovic, Ranko (2007). "Insular Celtic as a Language Area".Papers from the Workshop within the Framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies. The Celtic Languages in Contact: 106.
^La Chanson de Roland. Edited and Translated into Modern French by Ian Short. Paris: Livre de Poche, 1990. p. 12.ISBN978-2-253-05341-5
^(in French) Antoine Adam, Georges Lerminier, and Édouard Morot-Sir, eds.Littérature française. "Tome 1: Des origines à la fin du XVIIIe siècle", Paris: Larousse, 1967, p. 16.
^(in French) Antoine Adam, Georges Lerminier, and Édouard Morot-Sir, eds.Littérature française. "Tome 1: Des origines à la fin du XVIIIe siècle", Paris: Larousse, 1967, p. 36–37.
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