TheOdyssey (/ˈɒdɪsi/;[1]Ancient Greek:Ὀδύσσεια,romanized: Odýsseia)[2][3] is one of two majorancient Greekepic poems attributed toHomer. It is one of the oldest surviving works of literature and remains popular with modern audiences. Like theIliad, theOdyssey is divided into 24books. It follows theGreek hero and king ofIthaca,Odysseus, and his homecoming journey after the ten-year longTrojan War. His journey fromTroy to Ithaca lasts an additional ten years, during which time he encounters many perils and all of his crewmates are killed. In Odysseus' long absence, he is presumed dead, leaving his wifePenelope and sonTelemachus to contend with agroup of unruly suitors competing for Penelope's hand in marriage.
TheOdyssey was first written down inHomeric Greek in around the 8th or 7th century BC and, by the mid-6th century BC, had become part of the Greek literary canon. Inantiquity, Homer's authorship was taken as true, but contemporary scholarshippredominantly assumes that theIliad and theOdyssey were composed independently, forming as part of longoral traditions. Given widespread illiteracy, the poem was performed for an audience by anaoidos orrhapsode.
Key themes in the epic include the ideas ofnostos (νόστος; 'return', homecoming), wandering,xenia (ξενία; 'guest-friendship'), testing, and omens. Scholars still explore on the narrative significance of certain groups in the poem, such as women and slaves, who have larger roles than in other works of ancient literature. This focus is especially remarkable when contrasted with theIliad, which centres the exploits of soldiers and kings during the Trojan War.
TheOdyssey is regarded as one of the most significant works of theWestern canon. The firstEnglish translation of theOdyssey was in the 16th century. Adaptations and re-imaginings continue to be produced acrossa wide variety of media. In 2018, whenBBC Culture polled experts around the world to find literature's most enduring narrative, theOdyssey topped the list.[4]
Background
Composition
Many suggestions have been made for dating theOdyssey's composition, but there is no consensus. The Greeks began adopting a modified version of thePhoenician alphabet to create their own language during the 8th century BC.[5] The Homeric poems may have been one of the earliest products of that literacy; if this is so, they would have been composed towards the late 8th century BC.[6] Inscribed on aclay cup found inIschia, Italy, are the words "Nestor's cup, good to drink from".[7] Some scholars, such asCalvert Watkins, have tied this cup to a description of KingNestor's golden cup in theIliad.[8] If the cup is an allusion to theIliad, that poem's composition can be dated to at least 700–750 BC.[5]
Dating is similarly complicated by the fact that the Homeric poems, or sections of them, were performed regularly by rhapsodes for several hundred years.[5] TheOdyssey as it exists today is likely not significantly different.[6] Aside from minor differences, the Homeric poems gained a canonical place in the institutions of ancient Athens by the 6th century.[9] In 566 BC,Peisistratos instituted a civic and religious festival called thePanathenaia, which featured performances of Homeric poems.[10] These are significant because a "correct" version of the poems had to be performed, indicating that a particular version of the text had become canonised.[11]
In the 2nd and 3rd centuries BC, scholars affiliated with theLibrary of Alexandria—particularlyZenodotus andAristarchus of Samothrace—edited the Homeric poems, wrotecommentaries on them, and helped establish them as canonical texts.[12] Alexandrian scholarDidymus's commentary divided ancient editions of the Homeric texts intocity editions orindividual editions. City editions were likely created within the city (perhaps as "official" versions) while individual editions were independently prepared by scholars.[13] He mentions individual versions owned byAntimachus,Aristophanes of Byzantium, andSosigenes; there is a record of city editions existing inArgos,Chios,Crete,Cyprus andMarseille.[13] Many editions were stored in the Library of Alexandria.[14] Throughout antiquity, bothIliad andOdyssey were widely copied and used asschool texts in lands where the Greek language was spoken.[15][16] They were probably a core part of the ancient Greek education system, certainly for the elite ofClassical Athens.[17]
Their influence in non-Greek territories fluctuated. TheRoman Empire readily absorbed Homer into its own culture, spreading it east and west.[18] The subjects of both poems—Trojan War and its participants—were already critical historical and mythological references for Romans.[19]Alexander the Great's conquests spreadHellenistic cultural influence throughout the Eastern Mediterranean and it became read by every school child in the Greek world.[19]
Since the late 19th century, many papyri containing fragments of theOdyssey have been found in Egypt, some with content different from later medieval versions.[20] In 2018, theGreek Cultural Ministry revealed a clay tablet discovered near theTemple of Zeus at Olympia, containing 13 verses from theOdyssey's 14th book. While it was initially reported to date from the 3rd century AD, the date is unconfirmed.[21][22]
Influences
Terracotta plaque of the Mesopotamian ogreHumbaba, believed to be a possible inspiration for the figure of Polyphemus
Scholars have seen strong influences from Near Eastern mythology and literature in theOdyssey.[23]Martin West notes substantial parallels between theEpic of Gilgamesh and theOdyssey.[24] Both Odysseus andGilgamesh are known for traveling to the ends of the earth and on their journeys go to the land of the dead.[25] On his voyage to the underworld, Odysseus follows instructions given to him by Circe, who is located at the edges of the world and is associated through imagery with the sun.[26] Like Odysseus, Gilgamesh gets directions on how to reach the land of the dead from a divine helper: the goddessSiduri, who, like Circe, dwells by the sea at the ends of the earth, whose home is also associated with the sun. Gilgamesh reaches Siduri's house by passing through a tunnel underneath Mt.Mashu, the high mountain from which the sun comes into the sky.[27] West argues that the similarity of Odysseus' and Gilgamesh's journeys to the edges of the earth are the result of the influence of the Gilgamesh epic upon theOdyssey.[28]
In 1914,paleontologistOthenio Abel surmised the origins of the Cyclops to be the result of ancient Greeks finding an elephant skull.[29] The enormous nasal passage in the middle of the forehead could have looked like the eye socket of a giant, to those who had never seen a living elephant.[29] Classical scholars, on the other hand, have long known that the story of the Cyclops was originally afolk tale, which existed independently of theOdyssey and which became part of it at a later date. Similar stories are found in cultures across Europe and the Middle East.[30] According to this explanation, the Cyclops was originally simply a giant or ogre, much likeHumbaba in theEpic of Gilgamesh.[30] Graham Anderson suggests that the addition about it having only one eye was invented to explain how the creature was so easily blinded.[31]
Scholars are divided on whether any of the places visited by Odysseus are real.[32] The events in the main sequence of theOdyssey (excluding Odysseus'sembedded narrative of his wanderings) have been said to take place across thePeloponnese and theIonian Islands.[33] Many have attempted to map Odysseus's journey, but largely agree that the landscapes—especially those described in books 9 to 11—include too many mythical elements to be truly mappable.[34] For instance, there are challenges ascertaining whether Odysseus's homeland of Ithaca is the same island that is now calledIthakē (modern Greek:Ιθάκη);[33] the same is true of the route described by Odysseus to the Phaeacians and their island ofScheria.[32] British classicistPeter Jones writes that the poem was likely updated many times by oral story-tellers across several centuries before it was written down, making it "virtually impossible" to say "in what sense [the poem] reflects a historical society or accurate geographical knowledge".[35] Modern scholars tend to explore Odysseus's journey metaphorically rather than literally.[36]
TheOdyssey begins after the end of the ten-yearTrojan War.Odysseus, also known by the Latin variant Ulysses, the king ofIthaca, has not returned home because he angered the sea godPoseidon. Odysseus's son,Telemachus, is about 20 years old and shares his absent father's house on the island of Ithaca with his motherPenelope. With Odysseus presumed dead, thesuitors of Penelope—a crowd of 108 boisterous young men—try to persuade Penelope for her hand in marriage while partying in the king's palace.
Odysseus's protectressAthena asksZeus to finally allow Odysseus to return home when Poseidon is absent fromMount Olympus. Disguised as a chieftain namedMentes, Athena visits Telemachus to urge him to search for news of his father. He offers her hospitality, and they observe the suitors dining rowdily whilePhemius, thebard, performs a narrative poem for them.
That night, Athena, disguised as Telemachus, finds a ship and crew for the true prince. The next morning, Telemachus calls an assembly of citizens of Ithaca to discuss what should be done with the insolent suitors, who scoff at Telemachus. Accompanied by Athena (now disguised asMentor), the son of Odysseus departs for the household ofNestor on the Greek mainland. Telemachus rides toSparta, accompanied byNestor's son. There he finds a reconciledMenelaus andHelen, who say they returned to Sparta after a long voyage by way of Egypt. There, on the island ofPharos, Menelaus encounters the old sea godProteus, who tells him that Odysseus was a captive of the nymphCalypso. Telemachus learns the fate of Menelaus's brother,Agamemnon, king ofMycenae and leader of the Greeks at Troy: he was murdered on his return home by his wifeClytemnestra and her loverAegisthus. The story briefly shifts to the suitors, who realise Telemachus is gone. Angry, they formulate a plan to ambush his ship and kill him as he sails home. Penelope overhears their plot and worries for her son's safety.
Odysseus spends seven years as a captive of Calypso on the islandOgygia. She has fallen deeply in love with him, but he spurns her offers of immortality as her husband. She is ordered to release him by the messenger godHermes, sent by Zeus in response to Athena's plea. Odysseus builds a raft and is given clothing, food, and drink by Calypso. When Poseidon learns that Odysseus has escaped, he wrecks the raft. Helped by a veil provided by the sea nymphIno, Odysseus swims ashore onScherie, the island of the Phaeacians. Naked and exhausted, he hides in a pile of leaves and falls asleep.
The next morning, awakened by girls' laughter, he sees the youngNausicaä, who has gone to the seashore with her maids after Athena told her in a dream to do so. He appeals for help and she encourages him to seek the hospitality of her parents,Arete andAlcinous. Alcinous promises to provide him a ship to return him home without knowing the identity of Odysseus. He remains for several days. Odysseus asks the blind singerDemodocus to tell the story of theTrojan Horse, a stratagem in which Odysseus had played a leading role. Unable to hide his emotion as he relives this episode, Odysseus at last reveals his identity. He then tells the story of his return from Troy.
Odysseus recounts his story to the Phaeacians. After a failed raid against theCicones, Odysseus and his twelve ships were driven off course by storms. Odysseus visited thelotus-eaters who gave his men their fruit which caused them to forget their homecoming. Odysseus had to drag them back to the ship by force.
Odysseus and his men landed on a lush, uninhabited island near the land of theCyclopes. The men entered the cave ofPolyphemus, where they found all the cheeses and meat they desired. Upon returning to his cave, Polyphemus sealed the entrance with a massive boulder and begins to eat Odysseus's men. Odysseus devised an escape plan in which he, identifying himself as "Nobody", plied Polyphemus with wine and blinded him with a wooden stake. Polyphemus cried for help but was left by his neighbours after Polyphemus claimed that "Nobody" had attacked him. Odysseus and his men finally escaped the cave by hiding on the underbellies of the Cyclops's sheep as they were let out of the cave.
As they escaped, Odysseus taunted Polyphemus and revealed himself. The Cyclops prayed to his father Poseidon, asking him to curse Odysseus to wander for ten years. After the escape,Aeolus gave Odysseus a leather bag containing all the winds except the west wind, a gift that should have ensured a safe return home. Just as Ithaca came into sight, the sailors opened the bag while Odysseus slept, thinking it contained gold. The winds flew out, and the storm drove the ships back the way they had come. Aeolus, recognizing that Odysseus had drawn the ire of the gods, refused to further assist him.
After the cannibalisticLaestrygonians destroyed all of his ships except his own, Odysseus sailed on and reached the island ofAeaea, home of witch-goddessCirce. She turned half of his men into swine with drugged cheese and wine. Hermes warned Odysseus about Circe and gave Odysseus an herb calledmoly, making him resistant to Circe's magic. Odysseus forced Circe to change his men back to their human forms and was seduced by her. They remained with her for one year. Finally, guided by Circe's instructions, Odysseus and his crew crossed the ocean and reached a harbor at the western edge of the world, where Odysseussacrificed to the dead. Odysseus summoned the spirit of the prophetTiresias and was told that he may return home if he is able to stay himself and his crew from eating the sacredlivestock of Helios on the island of Thrinacia and that failure to do so would result in the loss of his ship and his entire crew. He then meets his dead motherAnticleia and first learns of the suitors and what happened in Ithaca in his absence. Odysseus also converses with his dead comrades from Troy.
Returning to Aeaea, they buriedElpenor and were advised by Circe on the remaining stages of the journey. They skirted the land of theSirens. All of the sailors had their ears plugged up with beeswax, except for Odysseus, who was tied to the mast as he wanted to hear the song. He told his sailors not to untie him as it would only make him drown himself. They then passed between the six-headed monsterScylla and the whirlpoolCharybdis. Scylla claimed six of his men.
Next, they landed on the island of Thrinacia, with the crew overriding Odysseus's wishes to remain away from the island. Zeus caused a storm that prevented them from leaving, causing them to deplete the food given to them by Circe. While Odysseus was away praying, his men ignored the warnings of Tiresias and Circe and hunted the sacred cattle.Helios insisted that Zeus punish the men for this sacrilege. They suffered a shipwreck, and all but Odysseus drowned as he clung to a fig tree. Washed ashore onOgygia, he remained there as Calypso's lover.
Return to Ithaca (Books 13–20)
Odysseus discovers Penelope has devised tricks to delay the suitors whilst he has been away:Penelope and the Suitors byJohn William Waterhouse
Having listened to his story, the Phaeacians agree to provide Odysseus with more treasure than he would have received from the spoils of Troy. They deliver him at night, while he is fast asleep, to a hidden harbour on Ithaca. Odysseus awakens and believes that he has been dropped on a distant land before Athena appears to him and reveals that he is indeed on Ithaca. She hides his treasure in a nearby cave and disguises him as an elderly beggar so he can see how things stand in his household. He finds his way to the hut of one of his own slaves, swineherdEumaeus, who treats him hospitably and speaks favorably of Odysseus. After dinner, the disguised Odysseus tells the farm laborers a fictitious tale of himself.
Telemachus sails home from Sparta, evading an ambush set by the suitors. He disembarks on the coast of Ithaca and meets Odysseus. Odysseus identifies himself to Telemachus (but not to Eumaeus), and they decide that the suitors must be killed. Telemachus returns home first and Odysseus, accompanied by Eumaeus, returns home still posing as a beggar. Only his faithful dog,Argos, recognises him. He is ridiculed by the suitors in his own home, especiallyAntinous. Odysseus meets Penelope and tests her intentions by saying he once met Odysseus in Crete. Closely questioned, he adds that he had recently been inThesprotia and had learned something there of Odysseus's recent wanderings.
Odysseus's identity is discovered by the housekeeperEurycleia when she sees an old scar as she is washing his feet. Eurycleia tries to tell Penelope about the beggar's true identity, but Athena makes sure that Penelope cannot hear her. Odysseus swears Eurycleia to secrecy.
Slaying of the suitors (Books 21–24)
Ulysses and Telemachus kill Penelope's Suitors byThomas Degeorge (1812)
The next day, at Athena's prompting, Penelope manoeuvres the suitors into competing for her hand with an archery competition using Odysseus's bow. The man who can string the bow and shoot an arrow through a dozen axe heads would win. Odysseus takes part in the competition, and he alone is strong enough to string the bow and shoot the arrow through the dozen axe heads, making him the winner. He then throws off his rags and kills Antinous with his next arrow. Odysseus kills the other suitors, first using the rest of the arrows and then, along with Telemachus, Eumaeus, and the cowherd Philoetius, with swords and spears. After the battle is won, Telemachus hangs twelve of their household slaves whom Eurycleia identifies as guilty of betraying Penelope by having sex with the suitors. Odysseus identifies himself to Penelope. Although hesitant at first, she embraces him after he mentions that he made their bed from an olive tree still rooted to the ground. They go to sleep.
The next day, Odysseus goes to his fatherLaertes's farm and reveals himself. Following them to the farm is a group of Ithacans, led byEupeithes, father of Antinous, who are out for revenge for the murder of the suitors. A battle breaks out, but it is quickly stopped by Athena and Zeus.
TheOdyssey has 12,109 lines composed indactylic hexameter, also called Homeric hexameter.[37][38] It opensin medias res, in the middle of the overall story, with prior events described throughflashbacks and storytelling.[39]
TheOdyssey is divided into 24 books. While some scholars have posited that these correspond to the 24 letters of the Greek alphabet, recent scholarship rejects the connection as an ahistorical fiction created by earlier scholars.[40] The division was probably made long after the poem's composition but is generally accepted as part of the poem's modern structure.[41] InClassical Greece, some books or were provided with their own titles. Books 1 to 4, which focus on the perspective of Telemachus, are called theTelemachy.[42] Some scholars suggest these were added in a revision of the poem, while others note that later parts would not make sense without them.[43] Books 9 to 12, wherein Odysseus provides an account of his adventures, are called theApologos orApologoi.[36][44] Book 22 was known asMnesterophonia (Mnesteres, 'suitors' +phónos, 'slaughter').[45] Book 22 is generally said to conclude the GreekEpic Cycle, but fragments remain of a lost sequel known as theTelegony. TheTelegony aside, the last 548 lines of theOdyssey, corresponding to Book 24, are believed by many scholars to have been added by a slightly later poet.[46]
Themes and patterns
Homecoming
Odyssey (1794)
Homecoming (Ancient Greek:νόστος, nostos) is a central theme of theOdyssey.[47] Anna Bonafazi of theUniversity of Cologne writes that, in Homer,nostos is "return home from Troy, by sea".[48] Agatha Thornton examinesnostos in the context of characters other than Odysseus, in order to provide an alternative for what might happen after the end of theOdyssey.[49] For instance, one example is that of Agamemnon's homecoming versus Odysseus'. Upon Agamemnon's return, his wife Clytemnestra and her lover, Aegisthus, kill Agamemnon. Agamemnon's son,Orestes, out of vengeance for his father's death, kills Aegisthus. This parallel compares the death of the suitors to the death of Aegisthus and sets Orestes up as an example for Telemachus.[49] Also, because Odysseus knows about Clytemnestra's betrayal, Odysseus returns home in disguise in order to test the loyalty of his own wife, Penelope.[49] Later, Agamemnon praises Penelope for not killing Odysseus. It is because of Penelope that Odysseus has fame and a successful homecoming. This successful homecoming is unlikeAchilles, who has fame but is dead, and Agamemnon, who had an unsuccessful homecoming resulting in his death.[49]
Wandering
Only two of Odysseus's adventures are described by the narrator. The rest of Odysseus' adventures are recounted by Odysseus himself. The two scenes described by the narrator are Odysseus on Calypso's island and Odysseus' encounter with the Phaeacians. These scenes are told by the poet to represent an important transition in Odysseus' journey: being concealed to returning home.[50]
Calypso's name comes from the Greek wordkalúptō (καλύπτω), meaning 'to cover' or 'conceal', which is apt, as this is exactly what she does with Odysseus.[51] Calypso keeps Odysseus concealed from the world and unable to return home. After leaving Calypso's island, the poet describes Odysseus' encounters with the Phaeacians—those who "convoy without hurt to all men"[52]—which represents his transition from not returning home to returning home.[50]
Also, during Odysseus' journey, he encounters many beings that are close to the gods. These encounters are useful in understanding that Odysseus is in a world beyond man and that influences the fact he cannot return home.[50] These beings that are close to the gods include the Phaeacians who lived near the Cyclopes,[53] whose king, Alcinous, is the great-grandson of the king of the giants,Eurymedon, and the grandson of Poseidon.[50] Some of the other characters that Odysseus encounters are the cyclopsPolyphemus, the son of Poseidon; Circe, a sorceress who turns men into animals; and thecannibalistic giants, the Laestrygonians.[50]
Throughout the course of the epic, Odysseus encounters several examples ofxenia ('guest-friendship'), which provide models of how hosts should and should not act.[54][55] The Phaeacians demonstrate exemplary guest-friendship by feeding Odysseus, giving him a place to sleep, and granting him many gifts and a safe voyage home, which are all things a good host should do. Polyphemus demonstrates poor guest-friendship. His only "gift" to Odysseus is that he will eat him last.[55] Calypso also exemplifies poor guest-friendship because she does not allow Odysseus to leave her island.[55] Another important factor to guest-friendship is that kingship implies generosity. It is assumed that a king has the means to be a generous host and is more generous with his own property.[55] This is best seen when Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, begs Antinous, one of the suitors, for food and Antinous denies his request. Odysseus essentially says that while Antinous may look like a king, he is far from a king since he is not generous.[56]
According to J. B. Hainsworth, guest-friendship follows a very specific pattern:[57]
The arrival and the reception of the guest.
Bathing or providing fresh clothes to the guest.
Providing food and drink to the guest.
Questions may be asked of the guest and entertainment should be provided by the host.
The guest should be given a place to sleep, and both the guest and host retire for the night.
The guest and host exchange gifts, the guest is granted a safe journey home, and the guest departs.
Another important factor of guest-friendship is not keeping the guest longer than they wish and also promising their safety while they are a guest within the host's home.[54][58]
Testing
Penelope questions Odysseus to prove his identity.
Another theme throughout theOdyssey is testing.[59] This occurs in two distinct ways. Odysseus tests the loyalty of others and others test Odysseus' identity. An example of Odysseus testing the loyalties of others is when he returns home.[59] Instead of immediately revealing his identity, he arrives disguised as a beggar and then proceeds to determine who in his house has remained loyal to him and who has helped the suitors. After Odysseus reveals his true identity, the characters test Odysseus' identity to see if he really is who he says he is.[59] For instance, Penelope tests Odysseus' identity by saying that she will move the bed into the other room for him. This is a difficult task since it is made out of a living tree that would require being cut down, a fact that only the real Odysseus would know, thus proving his identity.[59]
Testing also has a very specifictype scene that accompanies it. Throughout the epic, the testing of others follows a typical pattern. This pattern is:[59][58]
Odysseus is hesitant to question the loyalties of others.
Odysseus tests the loyalties of others by questioning them.
The characters reply to Odysseus' questions.
Odysseus proceeds to reveal his identity.
The characters test Odysseus' identity.
There is a rise of emotions associated with Odysseus' recognition, usually lament or joy.
Omens occur frequently throughout theOdyssey. Within the epic poem, they frequently involve birds.[60] According to Thornton, most crucial is who receives each omen and in what way it manifests. For instance, bird omens are shown to Telemachus, Penelope, Odysseus, and the suitors.[60] Telemachus and Penelope receive their omens as well in the form of words, sneezes, and dreams.[60] However, Odysseus is the only character who receives thunder or lightning as an omen.[61][62] She highlights this as crucial because lightning, as a symbol of Zeus, represents the kingship of Odysseus.[60] Odysseus is associated with Zeus throughout both theIliad and theOdyssey.[63]
Omens are another example of a type scene in theOdyssey. Two important parts of an omen type scene are therecognition of the omen, followed by itsinterpretation.[60] In theOdyssey, all of the bird omens—with the exception of the first—show large birds attacking smaller birds.[60][58] Accompanying each omen is a wish which can be either explicitly stated or only implied.[60] For example, Telemachus wishes for vengeance[64] and for Odysseus to be home,[65] Penelope wishes for Odysseus' return,[66] and the suitors wish for the death of Telemachus.[67]
The influence of the Homeric texts can be difficult to summarise because of how greatly they have affected the popular imagination and cultural values.[68] TheOdyssey and theIliad formed the basis of education for members of ancient Mediterranean society. That curriculum was adopted by Western humanists,[69] meaning the text was so much a part of the cultural fabric that it became irrelevant whether an individual had read it.[70] As such, the influence of theOdyssey has reverberated through over a millennium of writing. The poem topped a poll of experts byBBC Culture to find literature's most enduring narrative.[4] It is widely regarded by western literary critics as a timeless classic,[71] and it remains one of the oldest works of literature regularly read by Western audiences.[72] As animaginary voyage, it is considered a distant forerunner of thescience fiction genre, and, saysscience fiction scholarBrian Stableford, "there are more science-fictional transfigurations of theOdyssey than of any other literary text".[73]
George Chapman'sEnglish translations of theOdyssey and theIliad, published together in 1616 but serialised earlier, were the first to enjoy widespread success. The texts had been published in translation before, with some translated not from the original Greek.[74][75] Chapman worked on these for a large part of his life.[76] In 1581, Arthur Hall translated the first 10 books of theIliad from a French version.[77] Chapman's translations persisted in popularity, and are often remembered today throughJohn Keats' sonnet "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" (1816).[78] Years after completing his translation of theIliad,Alexander Pope began to translate theOdyssey because of his financial situation. His second translation was not received as favourably as the first.[79]
Emily Wilson, a professor ofclassical studies at theUniversity of Pennsylvania, notes that as late as the first decade of the 21st century, almost all of the most prominent translators of Greek and Roman literature had been men.[80] She calls her experience of producingher translation one of "intimate alienation".[80] Wilson writes that this has affected the popular conception of characters and events of theOdyssey,[81] inflecting the story with connotations not present in the original text: "For instance, in the scene where Telemachus oversees the hanging of the slaves who have been sleeping with the suitors, most translations introduce derogatory language ('sluts' or 'whores')... The original Greek does not label these slaves with derogatory language."[81] In the original Greek, the word used ishai, the feminine article, equivalent to "those female people".[82]
Literature
In Canto XXVI of theInferno,Dante Alighieri meets Odysseus in theeighth circle of hell, where Odysseus appends a new ending to theOdyssey in which he never returns to Ithaca and instead continues his restless adventuring.[29]Edith Hall suggests that Dante's depiction of Odysseus became understood as a manifestation ofRenaissancecolonialism andothering, with the cyclops standing in for "accounts of monstrous races on the edge of the world", and his defeat as symbolising "the Roman domination of the western Mediterranean".[54] Some of Ulysses's adventures reappear in the Arabic tales ofSinbad the Sailor.[83][84]
The Irish writerJames Joyce'smodernist novelUlysses (1922) was significantly influenced by theOdyssey. Joyce had encountered the figure of Odysseus inCharles Lamb'sAdventures of Ulysses, an adaptation of the epic poem for children, which seems to have established the Latin name in Joyce's mind.[85][86]Ulysses, a re-telling of theOdyssey set inDublin, is divided into eighteen sections ("episodes") which can be mapped roughly onto the twenty-four books of theOdyssey.[87] Joyce claimed familiarity with the original Homeric Greek, but this has been disputed by some scholars, who cite his poor grasp of the language as evidence to the contrary.[88] The book, and especially itsstream of consciousness prose, is widely considered foundational to the modernist genre.[89]
Modern writers have revisited theOdyssey to highlight the poem's female characters. Canadian writerMargaret Atwood adapted parts of theOdyssey for her novellaThe Penelopiad (2005). The novella focuses on Penelope and the twelve female slaves hanged by Odysseus at the poem's ending,[90] an image which haunted Atwood.[91] Atwood's novella comments on the original text, wherein Odysseus' successful return to Ithaca symbolises the restoration of apatriarchal system.[91] Similarly,Madeline Miller'sCirce (2018) revisits the relationship between Odysseus and Circe on Aeaea.[92] As a reader, Miller was frustrated by Circe's lack of motivation in the original poem and sought to explain her capriciousness.[93] The novel recontextualises the sorceress' transformations of sailors into pigs from an act of malice into one of self-defence, given that she has no superhuman strength with which to repel attackers.[94]
L'Odissea (1968) is an Italian-French-German-Yugoslavian television miniseries praised for its faithful rendering of the original epic.[97]
Ulysses 31 (1981–1982) is a French-Japanese television animated series set in the futuristic 31st century.[98]
Nostos: The Return (1989) is an Italian film about Odysseus' homecoming. Directed byFranco Piavoli, it relies on visual storytelling and has a strong focus on nature.[99]
Ulysses' Gaze (1995), directed by Theo Angelopoulos, has many of the elements of theOdyssey set against the backdrop of the most recent and previousBalkan Wars.[100]
Robert W. Smith's second symphony for concert band,The Odyssey, tells four of the main highlights of the story in the piece's four movements: "The Iliad", "The Winds of Poseidon", "The Isle of Calypso", and "Ithaca".[107]
Jorge Rivera-Herrans'sung-through workEpic: The Musical tells the story of theOdyssey over the course of nine "sagas", beginning with the end of the Trojan War and carrying through to Odysseus' homecoming to Ithaca.[110][111]
Sciences
PsychiatristJonathan Shay wrote two books,Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character (1994)[112] andOdysseus in America: Combat Trauma and the Trials of Homecoming (2002),[113] which relate theIliad and theOdyssey toposttraumatic stress disorder andmoral injury as seen in the rehabilitation histories of combat veteran patients.
^Wilson 2018, p. 21, "In 566 BCE, Pisistratus, the tyrant of the city (which was not yet a democracy), instituted a civic and religious festival, the Panathenaia, which included a poetic competition, featuring performances of the Homeric poems. The institution is particularly significant because we are told that the Homeric poems had to be performed "correctly", which implies the canonization of a particular written text of The Iliad and The Odyssey at this date.".
^Zazzera, Elizabeth Della (27 February 2019)."The Geography of the Odyssey".Lapham's Quarterly.Archived from the original on 8 October 2020. Retrieved29 July 2022.
^Ruskin 1868, p. 17, "All Greek gentlemen were educated under Homer. All Roman gentlemen, by Greek literature. All Italian, and French, and English gentlemen, by Roman literature, and by its principles.".
^Ames 2005, p. 17, "First of all, Joyce did own and read Homer in the original Greek, but his expertise was so minimal that he cannot justly be said to have known Homer in the original. Any typical young classical scholar in the second year of studying Greek would already possess more faculty with Homer than Joyce ever managed to achieve.".
^Williams, Linda R., ed. (1992).The Bloomsbury Guides to English Literature: The Twentieth Century. London: Bloomsbury. pp. 108–109.
^Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (2010).The Classical Tradition. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 653.ISBN978-0-674-03572-0.
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Hall, Edith (2008).The Return of Ulysses: A Cultural History of Homer's Odyssey. New York: I. B. Tauris & Co.ISBN978-1-84511-575-3.The two Homeric epics formed the basis of the education of every- one in ancient Mediterranean society from at least the seventh century BCE; that curriculum was in turn adopted by Western humanists
Haslam, M. W. (1976). "Homeric Words and Homeric Metre: Two Doublets Examined (λείβω/εϊβω, γαΐα/αία)".Glotta.54 (3/4):201–211.ISSN0017-1298.JSTOR40266365.
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Kundmueller, Michelle (2013). "Following Odysseus Home: an Exploration of the Politics of Honor and Family in the Iliad, Odyssey, and Plato's Republic".American Political Science:1–39.SSRN2301247.
Ruskin, John (1868).The Mystery of Life and its Arts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Thornton, Agathe (1970).People and Themes in Homer's Odyssey. London:Methuen.
Watkins, Calvert (1976). "Observations on the "Nestor's Cup" Inscription".Harvard Studies in Classical Philology.80:25–40.doi:10.2307/311231.ISSN0073-0688.JSTOR311231.
West, Martin (1997).The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. Oxford:Clarendon Press.
Willcock, Malcolm L. (2007) [1976].A Companion to The Iliad: Based on the Translation by Richard Lattimore. New York: Phoenix Books.ISBN978-0-226-89855-1.
Müller, W. G. 2015. "From Homer's Odyssey to Joyce's Ulysses: Theory and Practice of an Ethical Narratology."Arcadia 50(1):9–36.
Perpinyà, Núria. 2008.Las criptas de la crítica. Veinte lecturas de la Odisea [The Crypts of Criticism: Twenty Interpretations of the 'Odyssey']. Madrid: Gredos.Lay summaryArchived 18 June 2020 at theWayback Machine via El Cultural (in Spanish).
Saïd, S. 2011 [1998]..Homer and the Odyssey. New York: Oxford University Press.
Thurman, Judith, "Mother Tongue: Emily Wilson makes Homer modern",The New Yorker, 18 September 2023, pp. 46–53. A biography, and presentation of thetranslation theories and practices, ofEmily Wilson. "'As a translator, I was determined to make the whole human experience of the poems accessible,' Wilson said." (p. 47.)
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