Astana[a] is thecapital city ofKazakhstan. With a population of 1,423,726 within the city limits, it is the second-largest in the country afterAlmaty, which had been the capital until 1997.[15] The city lies on the banks of theIshim River in the north-central part of Kazakhstan, within theAkmola Region, though administered as a city with special status separately from the rest of the region. Initially founded asAkmoly in 1830, the city was later renamedAkmolinsk,Tselinograd, andAkmola before adopting the nameAstana in 1998, which means "capital city" in Kazakh.[15] In 2019, the city briefly adopted the nameNur-Sultan in honor of former presidentNursultan Nazarbayev, but it returned to the nameAstana in 2022.
Astana’s history is marked by rapid growth, especially after becoming the capital.[16][17] Its transformation into a modern andplanned city was guided by a master plan designed by Japanese architectKisho Kurokawa.[18] Today, Astana is known for its futuristic architecture, housing key government institutions like theAkorda Residence, the Parliament House, and theSupreme Court.[19][20][21] It has become an important center for culture, education, and commerce in Kazakhstan and Central Asia.
Astana gained international recognition when it hosted the2011 Asian Winter Games, an event that showcased the city’s ability to organize large-scale sporting events. The city also hostedExpo 2017, a major international exhibition focused on the theme of "Future Energy," which brought global attention to its commitment to sustainability and innovation. Astana is also home to theCongress of Leaders of World and Traditional Religions, a prominent event that brings together religious leaders from around the world to foster mutual understanding and peace.
The city’s transport infrastructure includes theNursultan Nazarbayev International Airport, a key hub for both domestic and international flights. Astana is also well-connected by two railway stations,Astana-1 andAstana-Nurly Zhol, which provide services to major cities across Kazakhstan and beyond. The city's public transport system includes buses, and the plannedAstana Light Metro system, currently under construction, is expected to significantly enhance the city’s transport network, offering efficient and sustainable travel within the city.
Astana is home to notable educational institutions, such asNazarbayev University,L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, and Astana IT University, contributing to its role as a hub for education and innovation. These institutions support the city’s growth in technology, research, and higher learning, making Astana an increasingly important center for knowledge and progress in the region.
The settlement of Akmoly was founded in 1830, possibly named after a local landmark. "Ақ мола" (Aqmola) literally means "white grave" or "white tomb" inKazakh,[22] although this theory is not universally accepted.[2] In 1832, it was granted town status and renamed Akmolinsk.[2] In 1961, underNikita Khrushchev, it was renamed Tselinograd, Russian for "City ofVirgin Lands".[23] In 1991, following Kazakhstan's independence, the name was changed to Akmola.[23]
In December 1997, the city replacedAlmaty as the capital of Kazakhstan, and in May 1998, it was renamed Astana, which means "capital city" in Kazakh.[24] In March 2019, the capital was renamed to Nur-Sultan (/ˌnʊərsʊlˈtɑːn/;[11]Kazakh:Нұр-Сұлтан / Nūr-Sūltan[ˌnʊrsʊɫˈtɑn]) in honor of the long-ruling PresidentNursultan Nazarbayev, shortly after his resignation.[25][26] In September 2022, PresidentKassym-Jomart Tokayev signed a constitutional amendment to revert to the name Astana.[27][28] As of 2022[update], it holds theGuinness World Record for the capital city with the most name changes in modern times.[23]
Many centuries ago, the Bozok settlement was located on the territory of modern Astana. It was a military fortress of the Steppe section of theSilk Road. The etymology of the Turkic word "Boz" carries several meanings such as 'untouched earth', 'virgin soil' and 'feather grass'. It was a large settlement of the 12-14th centuries. At present, Astana is expanding to the territory of ancient Bozok.[29]
The settlement of Akmoly was established on theIshim River in 1830[30]: 19 as the seat of anokrug. In 1832, the settlement was granted town status and namedAkmolinsk.[2] The advantages of the position of the town were clear as early as 1863. It describes how picket roads and lines[definition needed] connected this geographic center toKargaly in the East,Aktau Fort in the South and throughAtbasar toKokshetau in the West. In 1838, at the height of the great national and liberation movement headed byKenesary Khan, the Akmolinsk Fortress was burned.[31] After the repression of the liberation movement, the fortress was rebuilt. On 16 July 1863, Akmolinsk was officially declared anuyezd town.[32] During the rapid development of the Russian capitalist market, the hugeSaryarka areas were actively exploited by the colonial administration. To draft Regulation governing theKazakh steppe the Government of theRussian Empire formed Steppe Commission in 1865.[33]
In 1869, Akmolinsk's external district and department were cancelled, and Akmolinsk became the center of the newly establishedAkmolinsk Oblast. In 1879, Major General Dubelt proposed to build a railway betweenTyumen and Akmolinsk to the Ministry of Communications of Russia. In the course of the first 30 years of its existence, the population of Akmola numbered a trifle more than 2,000 people. Over the next 30 years, the city's population increased by three times according tovolosts and settlements of Akmolinsk Oblast. In 1893, Akmolinsk was anuyezd with a 6,428 strong population, three churches, five schools and colleges and three factories.[citation needed]
DuringWorld War II, Akmolinsk served as a route for the transport of engineering tools and equipment from evacuatedplants in theUkrainian SSR,Byelorussian SSR, andRussian SFSR located in theoblasts of theKazakh SSR. Local industries were appointed to respond to war needs, assisting the country to provide the battle and home fronts with all materials needed. In the post-war years, Akmolinsk became a beacon of economic revival in the west of theSoviet Union ruined by the war. Additionally, manyRussian-Germans were resettled here after beingdeported underJoseph Stalin's rule.[34]
In 1954, Northern Kazakh SSR oblasts became a territory of theVirgin Lands Campaign, in order to turn the region into a secondgrain producer for theSoviet Union.[35][36] In December 1960,Central Committee made a resolution to create the Tselinniy Krai, which comprised five regions of the Northern Kazakh SSR oblasts.[37]Akmolinsk Oblast was ceased to exist as a separate administrative entity.[37] Its districts were directly subordinated to the newkrai administration, and Akmolinsk became the krai capital, as well as the administrative seat of the new Virgin Lands economic region.[37] On 14 March 1961, Khrushchev suggested the city should have a name corresponding to its role in the Virgin Lands Campaign.[38] On 20 March 1961, the Supreme Soviet of the Kazakh SSR renamed Akmolinsk toTselinograd.[38] On 24 April 1961, the region was reconstituted asTselinograd Oblast.[37] In the 1960s, Tselinograd was completely transformed. In 1963, work on the first three new high-rise housing districts began.[39] In addition, the city received a number of new monumental public buildings, including the Virgin Lands Palace, a Palace of Youth, a House of Soviets, a new airport, and several sports venues.[40] In 1971, the Tselinniy Krai was abolished and Tselinograd became the oblast's new capital.[citation needed]
After thedissolution of the Soviet Union and the consequent independence of Kazakhstan, the city's original name was restored in the modified formAkmola.[2] On 6 July 1994, theSupreme Council of Kazakhstan adopted the decree "On the transfer of the capital of Kazakhstan".[41] After the capital of Kazakhstan was moved fromAlmaty to Akmola on 10 December 1997, the city was consequently renamed Astana in 1998.[42] On 10 June 1998, Astana was presented as the capital internationally.[43] Due to several determined advantages, Astana was chosen as the capital: large urban areas, favorable geographical position, proximity to the major economic centers of the region, considerable demographic capacity, good transportation facilities, and a relatively favorable climate.[44] On 16 July 1999, Astana was awarded the medal and title of the City of Peace byUNESCO.[41]
In March 2019, the Kazakhstani government renamed the city Nur-Sultan to honour the country's outgoing long-term authoritarian president,Nursultan Nazarbayev.[45] In September 2022, after a number of controversies andunrest resulting in Nazarbayev's resignation from theSecurity Council of Kazakhstan, the name of the capital was changed back to Astana.[46]
Astana is almost 1,000 km (620 mi) from the country's largest city and former capital,Almaty. The nearest big cities areKaraganda (200 km [120 mi]) andOmsk in Russia (450 km [280 mi]).[citation needed]
Astana is located in central Kazakhstan on theIshim River in a very flat, semi-arid steppe region which covers most of the country's territory. It is at 51° 10' north latitude and 71° 26' east longitude. The city encompasses 722.0 square kilometres (278.8 sq mi). The elevation of Astana is 347 metres (1,138 ft)above sea level. Astana is in a spacious steppe landscape, in the transitional area between the north of Kazakhstan and the extremely thinly settled national centre, because of the Ishim River. The older boroughs lie north of the river, whilst the new boroughs are located south of the Ishim.[citation needed]
Astana is the second-coldest national capital in the world afterUlaanbaatar, Mongolia, a position formerly held by the capital of Canada,Ottawa, until Astana attained capital city status in 1997.[47][48] Astana has an extremecontinental climate with warm summers (featuring occasional brief rain showers) and long, very cold, dry winters. Summer temperatures occasionally reach 35 °C (95 °F) while −30 to −35 °C (−22 to −31 °F) is not unusual between mid-December and early March. Typically, the city's river is frozen over between the second week of November and the beginning of April. Astana has a well-deserved reputation among Kazakhs for its frequent high winds, the effects of which are felt particularly strongly on the fast-developing but relatively exposed Left Bank area of the city.
Overall, Astana has ahumid continental climate classification inKöppen scheme (Dfb).[49] The average annual temperature in Astana is 3.9 °C (39.0 °F). January is the coldest month with an average temperature of −14.5 °C (5.9 °F) and record lowest is in January 1893's cold wave reaching temperatures down to −51.6 °C (−60.9 °F).[50] July is the hottest month with an average temperature of 20.6 °C (69.1 °F).[50]
Climate data for Astana (1991–2020, extremes 1881–present)
As of January 2020, the population of Astana is 1,136,008;[4] more than double the 2002 population of 493,000.[53]
As of 2018, ethnicKazakhs made up 80.6% of the city population, representing a significant increase from only 17% at the time of the country's independence.[54]
In 1989, Tselinograd had a population of 281,000. The ethnic mix was about 17.7%Kazakh, 54.1%Russian and 28.2% other ethnic groups.[56]
By 2007, Astana's population had more than doubled since becoming the capital, to over 600,000, and it topped 1 million in 2017. Migrant workers—legal and illegal—have been attracted from across Kazakhstan and neighbouring states such as Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, and Astana is a magnet for young professionals seeking to build a career.[57] Most of the immigrants in Astana are Russian.
ThePalace of Peace and Reconciliation was specially constructed in 2006 to host the Congress of Leaders of World and Traditional Religions. It contains accommodations for different religions: Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism,Hinduism,Taoism and other faiths.
The shift of the capital has given it a powerful boost to Astana's economic development. The high economic growth rate of the city has attracted numerous investors. In the 16 years since Astana became the capital, the volume of investments has increased by almost 30 times, the gross regional product has increased by 90 times,[64] and industrial output has increased by 11 times. The city'sGross Regional Product makes up about 8.5 per cent of the republic'sGross domestic product.[65]
The Astana – New Cityspecial economic zone was established in 2001 to help develop industry and increase the attractiveness of the city to investors.[66] The SEZ plans to commission five projects worth 20 billion KZT (around $108 million) in the Industrial Park No. 1 in 2015.[66] The projects include construction of a plant for production ofdiesel engines, afast food complex, temporary storage warehouses and a business center, a furniture factory, and production of military and civil engineering machinery.[66] The newAstana International Financial Centre opened in July 2018.
Astana's administration is promoting the development of small and medium-sized businesses through the cooperation of the Sovereign Welfare FundSamruk-Kazyna and National Economic Chamber. Support is provided by a special programme of crediting.[67] As a result, the number of small and medium-sized businesses increased by 13.7% to over 96,000 compared to the previous year as of 1 July 2015.[68] In addition, the number of people employed in small and medium-sized business increased by 17.8% to over 234,000 people as of 1 April 2015.[68]
Astana was included in the list of top 21 intelligent communities of the world, according to the report released by the Intelligent Community Forum in October 2016. The rating list includes the cities, regions and communities which use digital instruments for the construction of local economy and society.[69]
In 2018, Astana attracted more than three trillion tenge (US$7.91 billion) in foreign direct investment, a record amount for the city. The growth was achieved due to a large number of construction projects.[70]
Tourism becomes one of the factors that drive economic growth in the city. Astana is among the top ten most attractive tourist cities in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).[71]
Astana has become a platform for high-profile diplomatic talks and summits on critical global issues. Astana has hosted multiple rounds of talks between theSyrian Arab Republic government led byBashar al-Assad andSyrian opposition.[72] The 12th Ministerial Conference of theWorld Trade Organization (WTO) was originally scheduled to take place in June 2020 in then Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan, but was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In May 2020, WTO members discussed Kazakhstan's offer to reschedule the conference to June 2021 but postponed taking a decision due to the ongoing pandemic. In April 2021, members agreed that MC12 would take place in Geneva from 30 November to 3 December.[73] Since 2003, Astana has hosted the Congress on World and Traditional Religions, which is a diverse gathering of religious leaders to discuss religious harmony and ending terrorism and extremism.[74]
Astana is subdivided into four districts.Almaty District was created on 6 May 1998 by presidential decree. The district's territory encompasses an area of 21,054 hectares (52,030 acres; 81.29 square miles) with a population of 375,938 people. The district has five villages.Yesil District, which is also called left bank of the city, was created on 5 August 2008 by presidential decree. The district's territory encompasses an area of 31,179 ha (77,040 acres; 120.38 sq mi) with a population of 119,929 people.Saryarka District was created on 6 May 1998 by presidential decree. The district's territory encompasses an area of 19,202 ha (47,450 acres; 74.14 sq mi) with a population of 339,286 people.Baykonyr District was created on 16 March 2018 by presidential decree. The district's territory encompasses an area of 18,129 ha (44,800 acres; 70.00 sq mi) with a population of 233 351 people.
In April 1998, theGovernment of Kazakhstan asked architects andurban planners of international renown to participate in a design competition for the new capital. On 6 October 1998, Japanese architectKisho Kurokawa was awarded the First Prize.[75] Kurokawa's proposal aimed to preserve and redevelop the existing city, and create a new city at the south and the east sides of theIshim River, enabling the Symbiosis of the History and the Future.[75]
North of the railway line, which crosses Astana in an east–west direction, are industrial and poorer residential areas. Between the railway line and the Ishim river is the city centre, where at present intense building activity is occurring. To the west and east are more elevated residential areas with parks and the new area of government administration to the south of the Ishim River. Here many large building projects are under way; for example, the construction of a diplomatic quarter, and government buildings. By 2030, these quarters are to be completed. Astana's chief planner, Vladimir Laptev, wants to build aBerlin in aEurasian style. He has stated that a purely administrative capital such asCanberra is not one of his goals.
Two of the most significant structures in Asatana's developing urban landscape are thePalace of Peace and Reconciliation and theKhan Shatyr Entertainment Center.[30]: 20 Their architectural styles are intended to echo features of the nomadic empires that shaped the history of the Eurasian steppes.[30]: 20
The martial art palace was opened on 6 July 2019.[88] Sports facilities for five thousand spectators can take part in international competitions in boxing, wrestling, judo, weightlifting, and other Olympic and non-Olympic disciplines. The palace has a 25-meter pool, fitness and wrestling rooms, a football field, as well as a comfortable hotel. The object will be made available to the pupils of the sports school.
Astana has many universities and junior colleges. As of the 2013/2014[update] academic year, Astana had a total enrollment of 53,561 students in its 14 higher educational institutions, a 10% increase from the prior year.[89] TheL.N.Gumilyov Eurasian National University is the biggest university in Astana with 16,558 students and 1,678 academic staff.[90] It was founded as the result of merging the Akmola Civil Engineering Institute with the Akmola Pedagogical Institute on 23 May 1996.[91] The oldest university in Astana is the S. Seifullin Kazakh Agro Technical University founded in 1957.[92]Nazarbayev University is an autonomousresearch university founded in 2010 in partnership with some of the world's top universities.[93] TheKazakh University of Economics, Finance and International Trade is an economic institution in Astana.[94] The Kazakh Humanities and Law Institute is a law university founded by initiative of Ministry of Justice in 1994.[95] TheAstana Medical University was the only medical school in Astana until the opening of the School of Medicine at Nazarbayev University in 2014.[96] The Kazakh National University of Arts is the premiermusic school and has provided Astana with highly qualified professional specialists in the field of Arts.[97]
The city transport in Astana consists of buses and taxis. Over 720,000 people use public transport daily.[104] There are over 60 bus lines served by more than 1000 vehicles, with over 3000 people working in the public transport sector.[105] Just like buses, share taxis have their own predefined routes and work on a shared basis. There are three share taxi routes in total.[106]
Trolleybus routes were opened in 1983. There were originally 3 routes, however, by 2006, only one route was left. In 2008, the only trolleybus fleet by the special state commission was declared unprofitable due to debts to the energy supply company and as a result, it was completely closed.
In 2011, the Akimat of Astana established a company to implement a series of changes and programmes in the metropolis known as the "New transport system of Astana".[107] As part of these programmes,bus rapid transit (BRT) lines were opened. That same year, the construction of alight rail (LRT) was to begin. It was planned that the first stage of construction of a 16.4-kilometer line, which would've included nine stations, was planned to be completed by 1 December 2013. However, as of May 2020, construction has not started. In November 2013, PresidentNursultan Nazarbayev condemned the construction of LRT because of the high cost. In exchange, there was a promise to launch high-speed buses. Despite the controversy, the construction of the LRT began in 2017 with the flyovers along to which the trains will pass. After a corruption scandal in 2019, the project stagnated until 2023, when construction resumed. The LRT is set to open in 2024-25.[108]
The bicycle-sharing program AstanaBike has been operating in Astana since 2014. In 2017, the system consisted of 40 stations with 1000 bicycles. The registration in the system for a season costs 5000 tenge ($28), plus a deposit for an RFID card ($5.50), the first half-hour of bike rental is free, the next hour is 100 tenge ($0.55). After more than 4 hours, the rent costs 1000 tenge.
Nursultan Nazarbayev International Airport (IATA:NQZ,ICAO:UACC), located 17 kilometres (11 mi) south-east of the city center, is the main gateway for the city's domestic and international civilian air traffic.[109] It is the second-busiest airport in Kazakhstan, with 7,500,000 passengers passing through it in 2023.[110] The airport hosts 21 airlines operating regular passenger flights inside the country and internationally.[111]Air Astana maintains its second-largest hub at the airport.[112] An expected 50% increase in passenger traffic by 2017 has spurred the construction of a new terminal with an area of about 40,000 square metres (430,000 sq ft).[113][114]
Astana is located in the centre of the country, serving as a well-positioned transport node for rail and automotive networks.[115]
Astana railway station is the city's mainrailway station and serves approximately 7,000 people each day. A new railway station,Nurly Zhol was built during theExpo 2017 event with a customer capacity of 12,000.Tulpar Talgo is a daily express train toAlmaty.[116] Short-term plans include the construction of a new railway station in the industrial district; in the vicinity of CHPP-3 a new terminal will be erected for freight cars.[117]
M-36 Chelyabinsk-Almaty and A-343 Astana-Petropavlovsk highways are routed through the city. The strategic geographical positioning of Astana allows the city to serve as a transport and reload centre for cargoes formed at adjacent stations in the area.[citation needed]
Since 2008, navigation on the Esil River has been organized within the city. The Akimat of the city in the framework of the implementation of the "Shipping Esil" program created a specialized enterprise GKKP "Esil-Astana".
On 1 July 2010, at the 153rd General Assembly ofBureau International des Expositions held in Paris, representatives from then-Astana presented the city's bid to host the SpecialisedExpo 2017.[118][119][120] The Kazakh concept for this exhibition relates to the impact of energy on society in the modern world. The theme of the Astana Expo was "Future Energy".[121]
Expo 2017 opened to much fanfare on 10 June 2017, with heads of state from 17 nations in attendance. It is the first world's fair to be held in Central Asia and its central pavilion,Nur Alem, is the largest spherical building in the world. The two-millionth visitor was registered on 7 August. More than 4 million people attended the event.
Baiterek is the main attraction and symbol of Astana
"Ethnoaul National Cultural Complex" – a unique cultural, tourist and image project for Expo 2017. Ethnoaul is a real opportunity to travel to the past and feel like a real nomad, to feel the atmosphere of centuries past. The national-cultural complex will acquaint visitors with the rich history, culture, art and traditions of the Kazakh people, where anyone who is interested will be transferred to the ethno-cultural environment of the nomadic civilization and fully enjoy the daily and festive life of the aul
Independence Palace – a building designed for diplomatic and other events of international level; the building also has a large-scale layout plan of Astana with existing and future facilities
"Jastar" – the Palace of creativity of schoolchildren and youth
Kazakh Eli – ("The Country of Kazakhs") – a monument onIndependence Square. The 91-meter stele is crowned with the Samruk bird (Samұryқ, Simurg) – the king of all birds, the keeper of the peoples. The mythological image of Samruk also includes the second important monument of Kazakhstan – "Baiterek", in the translation "Tree of Life", under which the king of birds sits and spreads seeds on the ground from the flapping of wings
"Kazakhstan" – Central Concert Hall
Khan Shatyr is the largest shopping and entertainment center (considered the largest tent in the world). ArchitectNorman Foster
Kazakhstan Pavilion of Expo 2017
Kazakhstan Pavilion and Science Museum "Nur Alem" is the tallest building with a spherical shape, 30 meters in diameter, than the Ericsson-Glob Arena in Stockholm
National Space Center Future Energy Museum "Nur Alem" EXPO 2017 – the spherical building "Nur Alem" (Kaz. Shining World). Its height is 100 meters and its diameter is 80 meters
Nurjol Boulevard (formerly Water-Green Boulevard) is a recreational pedestrian zone with an Alley of Singing Fountains
There are 27 libraries in Astana, whose services in 2011 were used by 153 people for every thousand residents, 8 state museums, which were visited by 415,500 people in 2011 and which conducted 68,514 excursions, 10 recreation parks, in 2011 1492.2 thousand visitors were received and 99 events, 6 state museums and 6 cinemas were held.
TheCentral Concert Hall Kazakhstan is a unique complex of the young capital designed for events of various levels: concerts of world and domestic stars, celebrations and official meetings, exhibitions, conferences, presentations. ArchitectManfredi Nicoletti
Astana Circus is an entertaining circus institution in the city of Nur Sultan. One of the three main circuses of Kazakhstan; in the territory of the former USSR, one of the newest circuses and one of two unique circus buildings in the form of a "flying saucer" (along with the Kazan circus)
The National Opera and Ballet Theater named after K. Baiseitova is the youngest musical theater in the country, the bearer of the traditions of the Kazakh and world musical culture, comprehending the classical heritage and realizing the spiritual needs of the renewed Kazakhstani society
Astana Opera is a theater founded by the initiative of the first president of Kazakhstan, Nursultan Nazarbayev. The theater building, built in 2013, this Parthenon-styled edifice is one of the cultural centers of the city, staging both classical and original works,[122] is recognized as an architectural monument of national importance
Kazakh Music and Drama Theater named after K. Kuanyshbaev
State Academic Russian Drama Theater named after Maxim Gorky
TheNational Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan is the largest museum in Central Asia. The museum was created on behalf of the first president of the Republic of Kazakhstan N.A. *Nazarbayev in the framework of the State program "Cultural Heritage"
Modern Art Museum
Presidential Center of Culture – created on the initiative of the head of state N. Nazarbayev. The uniqueness of the research, cultural and educational complex of the capital is that its structure includes a museum, a library, a concert hall
ALZhIR (Akmola camp of wives of traitors to the motherland) – the largest Soviet women's camp, one of the three "islands" of the "Gulag Archipelago"
Atameken is an ethno-memorial complex of nature, architecture and life on a large-scale map of Kazakhstan
Memorial complex of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (in honor of the heroes of the Great Patriotic War in the capital)
Museum of The Future (Nur-Alem Pavilion) – is more than just a monument ofEXPO2017. The museum exhibition is all about the energy of the future. You can learn everything there is to know about renewable, green, and solar-powered energy sources, as well as see a model of the city proposed for 2050[122]
The Smart Astana project is an initiative developed by the then-Astana city administration that incorporates technology-driven solutions in various sectors, like hospitals, schools, the ticket booking system and street lighting.[128] These projects run on an interconnected application, the Smart Astana.[128]
Astana's smart city sector includes the annual Astana Innovations Challenge, designed to bring attention to the smart city concept.[129] In addition, the world's first smart sustainable city acceleration hub is set to open in Astana. This hub was planned to integrate from 10 to 15 startup solutions into the infrastructure of Kazakhstan.[129]
^abcCurtis, Simon; Klaus, Ian (2024).The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order. New Haven and London:Yale University Press.ISBN9780300266900.
^Curtis, Simon; Klaus, Ian (2024).The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order. New Haven and London:Yale University Press.ISBN9780300266900.
^История и ЕНУ сегодня [History and ENU today] (in Russian). L.N.Gumilyov Eurasian National University. Archived fromthe original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved7 October 2014.
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