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Nuo folk religion, or extendedly,Chinese popular exorcistic religion, is a variant ofChinese folk religion with its own system of temples, rituals, orders of priests, and gods that is interethnic and practiced across central and southernChina but is also intimately connected to theTujia people.[1] It arose as anexorcistic religious movement, which is the original meaning ofnuó (traditional Chinese:儺;simplified Chinese:傩). It has strong influences fromTaoism.[2]
One of the most distinguishing characteristics of Nuo folk religion is its iconographic style, which represents the gods as wooden masks or heads. This is related to its own mythology, which traces the origin of Nuo to the first two humans, who were unjustly killed by beheading and have since then been worshipped as responsive divine ancestors.[3] Nuo rituals began as efficacious methods to worship them, Lord Nuo and Lady Nuo.[4] Since the 1980s, Nuo folk religion has undergone a revitalisation in China, and today is a folk religion endorsed by the central government.[5] Nuo priests are classified as巫wu (shamans) and their historical precursors were the方相氏fangxiangshi .
The highest deities in the Nuo pantheon are Lord Nuo (傩公Nuógōng) and Lady Nuo (Nuópó傩婆), the two ancestors of humanity, according to mythology, whose sacrifice gave origin to Nuo practices.[4] When a Nuo ceremony is performed, the ancestral couple is represented by carved wooden statues erected in front of the temple, while all lesser gods are placed behind them. In simpler rituals, they are seen as embodiments of all the other gods.[4]
Generally, right below the ancestral couple of Nuogong and Nuopo come theThree Pure Ones (三清Sānqīng). These are the main trinity of Taoist theology, and were introduced among the Tujia byHan Chinese who moved to their areas. Apart from the trinity and some elaborate ritual styles, Nuo folk religion has not acquired the philosophical contents of Taoism, as the purpose of Nuo practices is mainly to "nourish" Nuo gods.[6] Directly below the Three Pure Ones is theJade Deity (玉帝Yùdì), another deity from Taoist theology, who is invoked by Nuo priests by blowing into a peculiar ritual instrument, an ox horn. The Jade Deity is conceived as the commander of all lesser gods, so in order to communicate with them it is necessary to call upon him first.[7]
Below the Jade Deity come theDeities of the Three Worlds (三皇Sānhuáng) and then theDeities of the Five Directions (五方帝Wǔfāngdì), both groups common to pre-Taoist Chinese religion. The triplet is formed by the patron of heaven (天皇Tiānhuáng, who isFuxi), the patron of earth (地皇Dehuáng, who isNuwa) and the patron of humanity (人皇Rénhuáng, who isShennong).[8]
The other group is formed by theYellow Deity of the centre of the cosmos, the Green or Blue Deity of the east, the Red Deity of the south, the White Deity of the east, and the Black Deity of the north. As in Chinese religion, they have a cosmological significance corresponding to various aspects of nature and are believed to have been incarnated in historical personages.[8]
Below the Three Patrons and the Five Deities is the Enthroned Deity, who is considered to be incarnated in the present time. The most prominent contemporary government figure of China is believed to be the Enthroned God. In Nuo shrines there is often a tablet with the inscription "a long life to the god on the throne".[9]
The setting of Nuo activities are distinct temples (傩庙nuómiào, "exorcism's temple") and private altars (傩坛nuótán).[10] The main task of Nuo practices is to strengthen the power of gods as much as possible so that they can exorcise malevolent beings.[11]
Nuo ceremonies (傩仪nuó yí) can involve dance performance (傩舞nuó wǔ), songs (傩歌nuó gē), sacrifices (傩祭nuó jì), and theNuo opera (傩戏nuóxì).
Every order of Nuo priests has its own founders, who are honoured at dedicated altars (师坛shītán, "order's altar"). The ancestors of the order are invoked during every ritual performance and in the divine hierarchy, they come right below the Enthroned Deity. The three earliest Nuo ritualists common to nearly all the orders are Yan Sanlang, Liu Wulang, and Huang Wanlang.[12]
There are also avariety of gods of nature and of human affairs, such as the Door Gods, the Well God, the Hearth God, the Land God, and the Wealth God, which are those with an immediate relationship with people despite their lower rank in the Nuo pantheon.[13]
Nuo cosmology is based on ayin and yang theory, clearly represented in mythology, otherwise explainable as a world in which potentiality and actuality, supernature and nature, form a complementary and dialectical duality which is the order of the universe. Man is an active participant within this order, interplaying with the world of divinity in a creative manner. Nuo mythology also tells of a highest goddess,Tiānxiān (天仙 "Heavenly Immortal"), who is directly involved since the origin of humanity in triggering this dialogue between the spiritual and the material.[14] The primary form of dialogue is the worship of ancestors, and this is reflected in the patriarchal structure of Tujia society.[4]
During theHeian period (794-1185), theJapanese adopted intoShinto manyTang dynasty (618-907) Chinese customs, including thefangxiangshi方相氏 (the precursor of Nuo priests), known inJapanese ashōsōshi方相氏, who would lead a funeral procession and exorcise demons from a burial mound. This practice was merged with traditional Japanese exorcistic rites such as the Shintoofuda ("talisman with the name of akami").
The earliest record was the (c. 797)Shoku Nihongi history,[15]: 45 which mentions ahōsōshi exorcist officiating at the burial ceremonies forEmperor Shōmu (756),Emperor Kōnin (781), andEmperor Kanmu (806).
TheKyōgen actor Nomura Mannojō noted that Chinesenuo儺 practices were the 8th-century source for the Japanesetsuina追儺 orsetsubun ("ritual to exorcise evil spirits on the last day of winter"), and proposed that supernatural power links the Chinesenuo performerfangxiangshi and the Japanesegigaku masked characterChidō治道 ("govern the way"), who leads a ceremony.[16]: 258 In Japanese tradition and art, thehōsōshi wears a four-eyed mask rather than the original four-eyed bearskin.
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The royal traditions of the Nuo folk religion in Korea were introduced in the 6th year of the reign ofJeongjong of Goryeo. According to Book 64 ofGoryeosa, a person between the ages of 12 and 16 was selected in December as a person who can exorcise evil called Jinja, which wore a red attire that was worn over the pants. 24 of these selected people formed a group and 6 people formed one row. Normally, the team is constituted of 2 groups. 12 people who led this team of exorcists wore a red hat and special clothing called sochang and had a whip. To fit the occasion of exorcism,Cheoyongmu was also performed in court. The tradition waned in performance after the lateJoseon period.
