Numidia (Punic:𐤌𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 𐤌𐤔𐤋𐤉𐤉𐤌,romanized: MMLKT MŠLYYM)[11] was the ancient kingdom of theNumidians in northwest Africa, initially comprising the northern part of what is nowAlgeria,[12] but later expanding into modernTunisia andLibya. The polity was originally divided between theMassylii state in the east (Capital:Cirta) and theMasaesyli state in the west (Capital:Siga).[13] During theSecond Punic War (218–201 BC),Masinissa, king of the Massylii, defeatedSyphax of theMasaesyli to unify Numidia into the first unifiedBerber state forNumidians in present-day Algeria.[14] Initially a sovereign state and an ally ofRome, the kingdom later alternated between being aRoman province and a Romanclient state.
The Greek historians referred to these peoples as "Νομάδες" (i.e. Nomads), which by Latin interpretation became "Numidae" (but cf. also the correct use ofNomades).[22] HistorianGabriel Camps, however, disputes this claim, favoring instead a local African origin for the term.[23]
Despite their presence, the Numidians are scarcely mentioned in Greek and Roman historical accounts until the First Punic War (264–241 BC), when the Greek historianPolybius first noted their cavalry. He also indicated the peoples and territory west ofCarthage including the entire north of Algeria as far as the riverMulucha (Muluya), about 160 kilometres (100 mi) west ofOran.[24]
The Numidians were people who inhabited North Africa, specifically the regions that now form northern Algeria and western Tunisia, during the final three centuries of the first millennium BC. Their lands bordered the Carthaginian hinterlands in eastern Tunisia to the east, the territory of the Mauri tribes to the west, and the Saharan edge occupied by the Gaetulians to the south.
By the time of theSecond Punic War in 218 BC, the previously scattered Numidian tribes had consolidated into two great and rival tribal groups: theMassylii in eastern Numidia, and theMasaesyli in the west. During the first part of the Second Punic War, the eastern Massylii, under their kingGala, were allied with Carthage, while the western Masaesyli, under kingSyphax, were allied with Rome. The Kingdom of Masaesyli under Syphax extended from the Moulouya river to Oued Rhumel.[25][26] The Romans worked hard to cultivate Syphax's friendship, and helped to train his troops in the techniques of infantry warfare.[27]
Syphax initially revolted against Carthage, but Gala’s son Masinissa, raised in Carthage, rallied forces and helped Carthage defeat Syphax twice by 213 BC, forcing him to flee.[28] Masinissa then joined the Carthaginian generalHasdrubal Barca in Spain, where he played a key role in Carthaginian campaigns against Rome.[29] After Gala’s death, Carthage stripped Masinissa’s family of their lands, prompting him to ally with Rome.[30] Returning to Africa, he initially partnered with Syphax against Carthage. However, Hasdrubal married his daughterSophonisba to Syphax, securing his loyalty to Carthage. Syphax defeated Masinissa twice in 205 BC, forcing him to retreat into the mountains, where he waged a guerrilla campaign, eluding capture and eventually joining forces with Scipio’s Roman army.[31]
In 204 BC, the Roman generalScipio Africanus landed in Africa with Roman forces, joined by Masinissa, whose tactical brilliance became evident when he helped destroy a combined Carthaginian-Numidian camp and later defeated Syphax and Hasdrubal at theBattle of Cirta in 203 BC. Masinissa captured Syphax and married Sophonisba, but Scipio, wary of her Carthaginian loyalty, demanded her surrender. To avoid enslavement, Sophonisba took poison, dying in 203 BC.[32] In return, Scipio proclaimed Masinissa king of all Numidia.[33]
Scipio Africanus honored Masinissa with agold crown, a goldpatera, acurule chair, an ivorysceptre, atoga picta, and a tunica palmata—the traditional symbols of a Romantriumphator. Scipio declared that nothing was more magnificent among the Romans than these honors, implying that Masinissa was the only foreigner worthy of such distinction. These rewards recognized Masinissa’s crucial role in securing Rome’s victory in the war.[34]
Masinissa regained his father's kingdom, and also took control of much of Syphax's territory. The Second Punic War ended with a Roman victory at thebattle of Zama in 202 BC, and Masinissa of the Massylii consolidated his position as the first king of a united Numidia with enthusiastic Roman patronage.[24] The Romans were determined to keep a powerful ally in Africa to prevent the Carthaginians from threatening their hard-won hegemony in the western Mediterranean.
In red Rome, in grey Carthage and in purple Numidia.
Having been educated in Carthage, Masinissa felt no hostility toward the Carthaginians. Several of his relatives bore Carthaginian names and his brother and uncle had family connections with Hannibal through marriage, and his grandson would later serve as a general there. However, to expand Numidia’s wealth, he sought to enlarge its lands — and the only valuable ones available belonged to Carthage.[35]
Massinissa, constantly encroaching on the territory left to the Carthaginians, had, by 158 BC, conquered Lepcis Magna and the Tripolitanian coast, bringing under his authority all the Berber tribes established betweenCyrenaica and theAmpsaga River. Masinissa's territory extended from theMulucha river to the boundary of the Carthaginian territory, and also southeast as far asCyrenaica to thegulf of Sirte, so that Numidia entirely surrounded Carthage (Appian,Punica, 106) except towards the sea.[36][18] Furthermore, after the capture of Syphax the king of the Masaesyli (West Algeria) with his capital based inSiga[13] and after losing Siga had relocated to a temporary capital in Tinga, Bokkar, had become a vassal of Massinissa.[19][20][21] Massinissa had also penetrated as far south beyond the Atlas to theGaetuli andFezzan was part of his domain.[16][36]
Carthage, complaining about Massinissa’s encroachments as he had taken control of most of the emporia or African ports, thereby ruining its trade, appealed to Rome, which sent commissioners to investigate the grievances on-site.[36] Among these envoys wasMarcus Cato, who, upon observing the rapid recovery of Carthage, whose fleet and army had been rebuilt, advocated for the destruction of the Punic metropolis. He concluded all his reports and speeches with the words: “Moreover, I thinkCarthage must be destroyed.”[37]
According to Appian's sometimes unreliable account, three main factions dominated Carthage’s internal politics in the mid-2nd century BC: a pro-Roman group supposedly led byHanno III the Great, a pro-Numidian faction under a “Hannibal the Starling,” and a “democratic” faction led byHamilcar “the Samnite” andCarthalo. In practice, the first two groups likely shared similar goals, since Rome and Numidia were closely aligned.[38] The “democrats,” by contrast, appear to have favored wider political participation for ordinary citizens and opposed the entrenched aristocracy—continuing the reformist tradition of Hannibal Barca’s era.[39]
When Masinissa seized more Carthaginian territory in 152 BC, political tensions within the city intensified. The democratic, now nationalist, faction gained control and exiled around forty of their rivals, including the “Starling.” They even forced citizens to swear never to recall them.[39] The exiles fled to Numidia, giving Masinissa the perfect excuse to intervene. After his son Gulussa was ambushed by Hamilcar’s men, the elderly but still energetic king invaded Carthaginian lands in 151 BC with an army of 52,000 men, besieging a town called “Oroscopa.”[40] Hasdrubal, leading a force of 30,000 men to relieve the city, was decisively defeated by Gulussa, Massinissa’s son, in 150 BC.[41] By preparing to fight back, Carthage effectively broke the peace treaty of 201 BC—an act that would soon trigger Rome’s wrath and lead directly to theThird Punic War.[40]
Learning that Carthage had waged war against a prince allied with Rome, the Romans dispatched an army of 80,000 men to Africa. In 146 BC Carthage wasobliterated by the armies of ConsulScipio Aemilianus after a 3 years long siege and 8 days ofurban fighting in the city.[42] The victors reduced Carthage’s territory to a Roman province, which they named the “Province of Africa.”[43]
Marble withPunic inscription mentioning kingMicipsa found inIol.
Under Masinissa and his son Micipsa, Numidia flourished. During this era of stability, Numidia advanced significantly. Settled agriculture expanded alongside traditional pastoralism,[44] towns grew more urbanized, and trade flourished through access to former Carthaginian ports.[45] The kingdom maintained Roman favor by supplying grain and military auxiliaries, including cavalry, infantry, and elephants. The Numidian kings tried to involve themselves in the Greek-dominatedHellenistic culture of the eastern Mediterranean.[46] In their coin portraits, Masinissa and Micipsa often wore a diadem, a whiteribbon tied around the head and recognized as a Hellenistic symbol of monarchy. They financed the construction of Greek-style buildings in their cities, and one of Masinissa's sons even competed in thePanathenaic Games.[46]
Politically, he engaged in the eastern Mediterranean, aiding Rome in theMacedonian Wars, sending troops to Greece, and supplying grain to Delos (which honored him).[45][47] Dubious of his intentions in the aftermath of the Macedonian wars, Rome rejected his request to visit theSenate and make a sacrifice in theCapitol.[48][49] Masinissa also maintained ties with Hellenistic monarchs such asNicomedes II of Bithynia, while his sons received their education in Greece, probably Athens.
Masinissa ruled for 55 years until his death in 148 BC, shortly before Rome’s destruction of Carthage in 146 BC.Micipsa succeeded him, reigning for another 30 years. The three sons of Massinissa jointly ruled Numidia, under Roman oversight. At the request of Masinissa, Scipio Aemilianus arranged a division of Masinissa's kingdom and inheritance.[42] Micipsa managed the palace and thetreasury in Cira,Gulussa was given command of the Numidian army andMastanabal was appointed chief Judicial authority in the kingdom.[42] On the death of his two brothers in 145 BC, Micipsa, finding himself sole heir to the kingdom of Massinissa, reigned in Cirta, with the help of his two sonsAdherbal andHiempsal I, and his nephewJugurtha, son of his brother Manastabal.[50] An ambitious Jugurtha proved to be a capable warrior in the Romansiege of Numantia in 134 BC.[51]
When Micipsa died in 118 BC, he was succeeded jointly by his two sons Hiempsal I and Adherbal and Jugurtha, who was very popular among the Numidians. Hiempsal and Jugurtha quarrelled immediately after the death of Micipsa.[52] Jugurtha orchestrated the assassination of his cousin Hiempsal and expelled his other cousin, Adherbal, from Cirta. Adherbal fled to Rome to seek the Senate’s protection.[51] However, Jugurtha had already bribed influential Romans, prompting the Senate to divide Numidia in 114 BC: western Numidia was given to Jugurtha, while Adherbal retained the eastern portion.[53] Jugurtha, having married the daughter ofBocchus, king of the western Mauri, amassed a large army and invaded Adherbal’s territory in 112 BC. Adherbal retreated to Cirta, where he endured a two-year siege. Starving, he surrendered, but Jugurtha executed him along with many Italians living in the city.[54] Summoned before the Senate for this act, Jugurtha escaped punishment by bribing senators.[53] Before leaving Rome, he assassinated Massiva, the son of Gulussa, who had lodged complaints against him. As he departed, Jugurtha famously declared, “O venal city, doomed to perish if it finds a buyer!”
In 108 BC, after regrouping, Metellus invaded Numidia, pushing Jugurtha’s Berber forces into retreat and capturing Cirta. Jugurtha fled to the Gaetulians and sought aid from Bocchus. Metellus was recalled and replaced by ConsulMarius, who led an army of 50,000 men. Mariusdefeated the combined forces of Jugurtha and Bocchus near Sitifis after a three-day battle and returned to Cirta. Bocchus sought peace and, at the urging of Marius’s lieutenantSulla, betrayed Jugurtha. Luring his son-in-law into his camp, Bocchus handed Jugurtha over to the Romans in 106 BC. On January 1, 104 BC, Marius celebrated a triumph in Rome, with the captured Jugurtha paraded in chains. That same evening, Jugurtha was thrown into the Tullianum prison,[59] where he soon died from cold and starvation.[60]
Northern Africa under Roman rule:Africa (purple),Numidia (blue),Mauretania (green)
After the death of Jugurtha, western Numidia, which was now called Mauretania, was added to the lands of Bocchus I.[24] Meanwhile, Gauda, another son of Manastabal who had remained loyal to Rome, was granted central Numidia. After Gauda’s death shortly thereafter, his sonsHiempsal II andHiarbas divided their father’s kingdom, ruling under Roman supervision. These Numidian and Mauretanian kings, as Roman protégés, frequently traveled to Rome, where their children were often educated and held as hostages to ensure their loyalty. Fluent in Latin and living according to Roman customs, they supported the arts, beautified their cities in Roman style, and developed their lands, which supplied Italy with a variety of agricultural products. Italians were also settled in fertile regions of Berber lands, often on lands confiscated from the indigenous population. This contributed to the increasing Romanization of North Africa.
The kings of Numidia and Mauretania often took advantage of Roman internal conflicts to settle their own disputes. During thecivil war between Marius and Sulla, Marius, exiled by Sulla, sought refuge with Hiarbas, while Hiempsal II supported the dictator Sulla in 88 BC. Hiarbas, with the help of Marius’s supporters, defeated his brother Hiempsal and seized his kingdom. To counter Hiarbas and the Marian faction he had revived in Africa, Sulla sentGnaeus Pompey with sixlegions. Bocchus supported Pompey’s forces with a large contingent of Mauretanian cavalry commanded by Gauda, the son of his sonBogud. Hiarbas, defeated by Pompey and besieged inBulla Regia, was eventually forced to surrender to Gauda and was executed after enduring severe torture. Hiempsal II regained his kingdom and was granted Hiarbas’s former territory in 81 BC. Around the same time, Bocchus died, and Mauretania was divided between his two sons:Bocchus II, who ruled the eastern part of the kingdom with the old Punic city ofIol as his capital, and Bogud, who inherited the western part withTingi as its center.
Roman civil war and the end of the Numidian Kingdom
Juba, succeeding his father Hiempsal II in 50 BC, sought to take advantage of the civil war betweenCaesar andPompey to free himself from Roman control. From the city of Hippo, which he made his capital, he rallied exiles who helped him organize his native troops effectively. After Caesar took Italy from the Senate’s faction,Attius Varus, a lieutenant of Pompey and leader of the senatorial army, proclaimed his general’s authority in Africa and allied with Juba. Together, they defeated the army ofGaius Scribonius Curio, Caesar’s lieutenant, at theBattle of the Bagradas in July 49 BC. Following Pompey’s orders, Varus blocked African ports to halt shipments of goods, leading to famine in Italy, where even slaves began to starve. However, an agreement was reached between the rival leaders, who, realizing the need to avoid depopulating Italy, eventually neutralized the food embargo.
In the meanwhile, theAlexandrian war inPtolemaic Egypt ended favorably for Caesar, who installedCleopatra as queen of Egypt, and moved on to suppressa revolt in Armenia. The remnants of Pompey’s forces, having regrouped in Africa under Varus, were joined byLabienus (a former lieutenant of Caesar),Metellus Scipio (Pompey’s father-in-law),Afranius,Porcius Cato, and Gnaeus Pompey. With Juba’s support and his Berber troops, the republican army held off Caesar, forcing him to launch a new campaign against them.
From Rome, Caesar negotiated withPublius Sittius, a Campanian adventurer commanding a small army of Italians, Gauls, Spaniards, and Berbers in Africa. Promising Bocchus II and Bogud portions of Juba’s territory if they supported him, Caesar landed near Hadrumetum in November 47 BC. Initially outnumbered, with only 5,000 soldiers against his opponents’ 60,000, Caesar failed to take Hadrumetum but gained the allegiance ofRuspina and Leptis Parva. Meanwhile, his quaestor Sallustius Crispus captured the Cercina Islands, a key supply base for Pompey’s forces. Sittius captured Cirta, threatening Juba’s rear and forcing him to divert forces to deal with the insurgent Gaetulians. Reinforced with 30,000 men at Ruspina, Caesar besiegedThapsus. On February 6, 46 BC, he decisively defeated the allied forces attempting to relieve the city. Juba, attempting to reachZama-Regia, found its gates closed and was killed by a slave as Caesar entered the city in triumph. Scipio, cornered by Sittius’s sailors in the Gulf of Hippo, stabbed himself and drowned.
Victorious, Caesar sent Juba I’s son to Rome, where he was educated in Roman culture and loyalty to its power. Caesar annexed eastern Numidia into the Roman province of Africa Nova, appointing his lieutenant Sallustius Crispus as governor. Sallust exploited the province, amassing wealth under the pretext of punishing it for supporting Pompey. Bocchus II was granted additional territory inMauretania Sitifensis, while Bogud received western Numidia. Sittius, made legate, was awarded Cirta and its dependencies, taken from Masanasses, an ally of Juba. The surviving republican leaders fled to Spain, where Caesar, reinforced by Berber contingents under Bogud, defeated the Pompeian forces at Munda the following year. This marked the end of significant resistance to Caesar. Eastern Numidia was annexed in 46 BC to create a new Roman province,Africa Nova. Western Numidia was also annexed as part of the province Africa Nova after the death of its last king,Arabio, in 40 BC, and subsequently the province (except of western Numidia) was united with provinceAfrica Vetus by EmperorAugustus in 25 BC, to create the new provinceAfrica Proconsularis. During the brief period (30–25 BC)Juba II (son ofJuba I) ruled as a client king of Numidia on the territory of former province Africa Nova.
King Massinissa, the first ruler of unified Numidia, sought to embody the full stature of a monarch—almost in the likeness of a god.[61][62] During his reign, the cult of the divine king emerged strongly; coins were struck with his image, temples were later dedicated to him, and he maintained both an army and a fleet, which even Rome relied on in the East.[61]
The reign of Massinissa (203–148 BC) marked the first true royal power in Numidia. Long and stable, it was secured by the sovereign’s political skill, his ability to dominate his family, and to contain the autonomy of tribal chiefs, some of whom allied with Carthage.[62] His authority rested on a confederal system bringing together tribes and communities, jealous of their prerogatives yet integrated into a broader whole. Certain nearby tribes, as well as a few towns, were directly subordinated to him, while the coastal cities, with their Punic heritage, retained a quasi-autonomy, and theGaetuli remained largely outside his control.[63] He also replaced the traditional tribal succession system with a law ensuring succession by the eldest son, modeled after Hellenistic monarchies. Massinissa had also promoted the idea that "Africa should belong to Africans", which resonated with his Berber subjects, naturally hostile to foreigners.[64]
Massinissa relied on matrimonial alliances and the use of tribal hostages.[63] He also raised an army made up of tribal contingents, which he gradually organized into a more regular force following the Carthaginian model. This structure required solid finances and enabled the king to assert his authority. His power also rested on the unity of the Massylian people and the cohesion of tribes around his person, possibly reinforced by a semi-divine aura.[62] Upon his death, the dynasty remained fragile: succession nominally fell to the eldest male heir, but was often contested by brothers and cousins, as shown by Jugurtha, who imposed himself through force and the elimination of rivals.[65] Thus, although the Numidian kingdom was not a centralized modern state, neither was it merely a patchwork of independent tribes:[65] it represented a genuine political construction, able to resist and negotiate with the great Mediterranean powers before its eventual absorption by Rome.[66]
The Numidian cavalry were renowned as the most effective light cavalry in the ancient Mediterranean, playing a crucial role in the armies of both Carthage and Rome. Despite their lack of armor, simple weaponry, and rudimentary tack, their unmatched horsemanship made them invaluable. Numidian riders, trained from childhood, mastered riding without saddles or bridles, using only a simple rein and wooden rod to guide their hardy, fast, and low-maintenance horses. Their close bond with their mounts enabled remarkable feats, such as switching to a spare horse mid-battle. Their distinctive tactics relied on speed and mobility. Using hit-and-run strategies, they would harass enemy formations with javelins while avoiding direct combat. This approach, developed from the raiding practices of North African nomads, minimized casualties while disrupting opponents. Notably, they excelled at reconnaissance, raiding, and supporting larger armies by keeping enemies off-balance. Numidian cavalry played pivotal roles in major conflicts, such as Hannibal’s campaigns during the Second Punic War and Scipio Africanus’ victory at Zama in 202 BC. After Rome’s alliance with the Numidian king Masinissa, these horsemen became essential auxiliaries, fighting in wars across the Mediterranean. Even after Numidia’s absorption into the Roman Empire, their tactics and equipment remained largely unchanged, with Numidian cavalry continuing to serve in policing and military campaigns well into the Roman imperial period.
The Numidian kings supplied African forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) to the Romans, who used them in key battles such asPydna (168 BC) and the siege of Numantia (134 BC). These elephants, smaller than bush elephants, were adopted from the Carthaginians, who used them effectively during the Punic Wars, including Hannibal’s famous Alpine crossing. Initially, Carthaginian elephants carried only a mahout, as their size and ferocity were sufficient for combat. However, by the 1st century BC, Numidian elephants were equipped with turrets, as seen during Juba I’s alliance with the Romans and Caesar’s capture of 64 elephants at Thapsus (46 BC). Despite their utility, elephants could be unpredictable, as demonstrated during the siege of Numantia, where one enraged elephant caused chaos, trampling both allies and enemies.
The Numidian kingdom was very famous for its agricultural yield; besideslettuce,beans, and othergrains already consumed by Berbers since the dawn of their recorded history, Numidia was very productive when it came to its famously high-qualitywheat, very similar to the wheat farmed along the banks of the EgyptianNile. According to Roman historianPliny the elder:
Among the wheat imports of Rome, is light wheat imported from Gallia which does not surpass the weight of a bushel (Boisseau) 20 livres. The weight of the wheat of Sardinia surpasses that of Gallia by half a livre, the wheat of Biossia surpasses that of Gallia by an entire livre, whereas the wheat of Africa surpasses the weight of wheat of Gallia by a whole livre and three fourths.[67]
In 179 BC, King Masinissa of Numidia received a golden crown from the inhabitants ofDelos, as he had offered them a shipload of grain. A statue of Masinissa was erected in Delos in his honor, with an inscription by a native fromRhodes. His sons, too, had statues erected on the island of Delos; the King of Bithynia, Nicomedes, had also dedicated a statue to Masinissa.[68] By 143 AD, the export of olive oil from Numidia rivaled its grain export throughout the Roman Empire.
In 200 BC, the Roman Army stationed inMacedonia received 17,508 hectoliters of Numidian wheat; in 198 BC, the Roman Army in Greece was sent, once again, the same amount of wheat. In 191 BC, Rome received 26,262 hectoliters of wheat and 21,885 hectoliters ofbarley; Greece, the same year, received 43,770 hectoliters of wheat and 26,262 hectoliters of barley. Then, in 171 BC, the Roman army in Macedonia received 87,540 hectoliters of wheat.
in 200 BC: 14,000 tonnes of wheat and 10,500 tonnes of barley.
in 198 BC: 14,000 tonnes of wheat.
in 191 BC: 56,000 tonnes of wheat and 28,900 tonnes of barley.
in 170 BC: 70,000 tonnes of wheat.
These numbers only represent a fraction from the reserves of the kingdom of Massinissa. His contributions to the Romans in 170 BC appear to be only a fraction of the kingdom's total production, as he was upset by Rome's decision to pay for the provided wheat that year. Massinissa hadn't laid his hands yet on the fertile lands of the Emporia (North WestAncient Libya) nor the great plains full of fertile soil yet; generally, barley was his kingdom's main produce, as they grew barley in light, mountainous and hilly soil which is suitable for its cultivation.
Louvre cast of the Dougga Temple bilingual (AO 4611). Original discovered in 1904, cast thought to be 1920 (Punic and Libyan)
Bilingual inscription (Numidian and Punic) from Thugga, Dougga, Tunisia
Numidian culture developed at the crossroads of indigenous Berber traditions and Punic influences brought by Carthage, especially through military ties, intermarriage, and education at Carthage.[70][71] Even after Carthage’s political decline in 201 BC, Punic influence continued. Numidian towns adopted Phoenician-style institutions, such as magistrates calledsufetes.[72]
Far from being passive receivers of a ready-made civilization, the Numidians actively participated in shaping what became a distinctive North African culture. The Numidian capital city of Cirta embodied a Punic-Numidian cultural fusion enriched by Greek influence. This was illustrated by the votivestelae dedicated to the Punic godsBaal Hammon andTanit, discovered in the Constantinian suburb of El-Hofra and dated to the 3rd–2nd centuries BC.[71]
Language played a central role in the aforementioned cultural fusion. The official language of the Numidian and Mauretanian kingdoms was Punic, used for royal inscriptions, coin legends, and religious dedications.[73] Numidia even developed into a center of Punic literature, with King Hiempsal II writing history in Punic after 146 BC, when the Romans had presented Massinissa’s heirs with Carthage’s library.[72] Even centuries after the fall of Carthage, Punic remained alive;Saint Augustine testified that farmers around Hippo still spoke it in his time.[73]
Alongside Punic, the Libyco-Berber script was also in use, an alphabet that survives among theTuareg asTifinagh, a name probably meaning “the Punic letters.”[74] Only atDougga did the Numidian kings attempt to use Libyco-Berber in official inscriptions, showing the coexistence of both linguistic traditions.[73][51]
According to the French historian Gilber Meynier, both a Greek and later an Italian colony, likely Punicized, lived at Cirta. The stelae bear inscriptions in Punic and Greek, reflecting the city’s multicultural character. The Numidian kings and elites were well-versed in Greek, which was then the international language of diplomacy and refined culture across the Mediterranean, including in Rome. When Scipio Aemilianus captured Carthage in 146 BC, he conversed in Greek with King Massinissa, and the latter’s descendants also spoke Greek.[75] By the 1st century BC, Numidia had its own diplomatic and cultural ties with the Greek world.[72]
Religion in Numidia also demonstrates the merging of traditions. The great Punic gods, Baal Hammon and Tanit, were worshiped across the Numidian kingdoms. Baal Hammon was so deeply rooted in North Africa that he later became identified with the Roman Saturn, while Tanit (or Tinit) had a name resonating with Berber phonetics.[76] Massinissa, influenced by Phoenician civilization, allowed the worship of Phoenician gods in urban centers, while rural communities venerated local gods and spirits. Some Libyan groups also worshipped celestial bodies such as the Sun and Moon. Massinissa, despite his openness to foreign influences, had a profound influence on religion in his kingdom. He did not abandon traditional African beliefs. When he welcomed Roman consulPublius Cornelius Scipio, he expressed his gratitude in a distinctly African manner, saying: “I give thanks to you, O Great Sun, and to you, other gods of the heavens.” This invocation highlights his reverence for the solar deity. As an admirer of Greek culture, he likely introduced the Numidians to the Greek cult ofDemeter andPersephone (Ceres), a fertility religion involving rituals aimed at promoting agricultural productivity. These rites often included crude and provocative elements, reflecting their connection to natural cycles and fertility.[77]
The term “Royal Numidian Architecture” was coined for the monuments that were constructed by the Numidian kings.[78] These monuments consist of tombs, tumuli and sanctuaries. Some examples of these structures are themausoleum of Thugga, the tomb of Beni Rhenane, a tomb at Henchur Burgu in Djerba as well as two tumulus tombs known as theMadghacen and theRoyal Mausoleum of Mauretania.[78] There are also altars that were built atSimitthus and Kbor Klib. All of these monuments were built within the area ruled by Massinissa and his descendants.[78]
Numidian urban life reflected this same cultural blend. Historian Gabirel Camps stresses that cities such as Cirta, Siga, and Volubilis were not Carthaginian colonies, but authentic centers of Punic culture. They displayed Punic urban planning, sanctuaries, and inscriptions while retaining Berber characteristics. Architecture provides striking examples of this synthesis. The Medracen mausoleum, built in the 4th or 3rd century BC, is a vast royal tomb that combines the Berber form of the stepped tumulus with Punic and Hellenistic features such as Doric columns, Egyptian-style cornices, and cedar ceilings. Other mausolea at Dougga, Maktar, and Khroub illustrate the same mixture. These monuments show that Numidian elites were already deeply Punicized well before Carthage’s destruction, while still maintaining indigenous forms.[79]
Massinissa was likely the first Numidian ruler to Hellenize his court, turning it into a cultural center visited by figures likePolybios andPtolemy VIII. His coinage displayed Greek artistic traits (a diademed bust, the elephant symbol of Numidian royalty). He may have pioneered the use of Numidian marble and adopted Hellenistic-style architecture, including monumental tombs.[80]
Royal mausoleum-temple of the Berber Numidian Kings (Medracen),Batna (Algeria)
Rhodean Greek amphora that dates to circa 180 B.C. in Cirta Museum
The significance of trade in the Numidian kingdom is evident from the development of coinage. Many coins depict a bearded figure on one side and a free, galloping or rearing horse on the other. Some coins bear the inscriptions “MN,” an abbreviation for Massinissa (MSNSN), or “MKWSN” (Micipsa). While coin minting in Numidia predates Massinissa, it expanded significantly during his reign. This increase in coin circulation is attributed to Massinissa, particularly as the largest number of coins has been discovered around Constantine. These coins, made of lead or bronze, were used for domestic trade. Trade also involved rural populations paying taxes in grain. For foreign commerce, Massinissa received gold and silver coins from other nations in exchange for Numidian exports such as grain, ivory, ostrich feathers and eggs, exotic animals for circuses, and wood.
The Numidian kingdom maintained trade relations with the Iberian Peninsula, Carthage, and Rome, as well as the Greek world, including Rhodes, Athens, and Delos. Grain was the primary export. Historian Camps, referencing Livy, provides detailed records of Numidian grain exports to Rome: 14,000 quintals of wheat and 10,500 quintals of barley in 200 BC, 14,000 quintals of wheat in 198 BC, 56,000 quintals of wheat and 28,000 quintals of barley in 191 BC, and 70,000 quintals of wheat in 170 BC.
Massinissa used to provide to the population of Rhodes Toja wood and Ivory,[81] inCirta multiple Rhodian amphorae from the 2nd century B.C were found in burial sites and one of them carries the inscription (Sodamos).[82] Massinissa encouraged Greek merchants to settle in his cities and welcomed figures like the historian Polybius. During his reign, North Africa established direct trade connections with both the East and the West, bypassing Carthage. This transformation was largely due to Massinissa’s efforts.
Numidia took over most of the famous Carthaginian ports which were one of the most important in the mediterranean, the famous Roman orator and historianCicero tells us that the Numidian king had a war navy to protect his trade, in one story, the fleet of Massinissa sailed to Malta and confiscated large ivory elephant pillars from the temple ofJuno and returned to Numidia and gave it as a prize to Massinissa. When the king knew about the origin of the gift, he prepared a nimble fleet of five ships and sent it back to where it came from. This funny story tells us that not only Massinissa had enough ships to perform tasks at will but also these fleets were functioning outside of African shorelines towards the central Mediterranean.[83][page needed]
Numidia became highly romanized and was studded with numerous towns.[24] The chief towns of Roman Numidia were, in the north,Cirta or modernConstantine, the capital, with its portRussicada (modernSkikda); andHippo Regius (nearBône), well known as thesee of St.Augustine. To the south in the interior military roads led toTheveste (Tebessa) andLambaesis (Lambessa) with extensive Roman remains, connected by military roads with Cirta and Hippo, respectively.[24][84]
Lambaesis was the seat of theLegio IIIAugusta, and the most important strategic centre.[24] It commanded the passes of theAurès Mountains (Mons Aurasius), a mountain block that separated Numidia from theGaetuli Berber tribes of the desert, and which was gradually occupied in its whole extent by the Romans under the Empire. Including these towns, there were altogether twenty that are known to have received at one time or another the title and status of Roman colonies; and in the 5th century, theNotitia Dignitatum enumerates no fewer than 123 sees whose bishops assembled at Carthage in 479.[24]
^Punic and Neo-Punic was especially dominant during the early era of the Numidian kingdom. Several official Punic inscriptions survive, and Numidian coins were minted in Punic at first, likely because it was the most influential language when it came to trade in the area. Some historians even consider it the official language of Numidia during its early/mid eras.[2]
^The Punic language and religion survived the cataclysm too. Many if not most Libyan communities used Punic for official purposes, as did the Numidian kingdom.[5]
^Used especially in funerary and votive steles, with a few surviving "official" royal inscriptions.[6][7][8]
^During the later eras of Numidia, Latin started replacing Punic as the dominant secondary language inside Numidia. Coins were minted in Latin, and inscriptions in Latin began appearing,[9] however, many of those Latin inscriptions may have been from the Roman era itself
^Greek first appeared in the region through trade routes opened up byMassinissa, and gained traction and influence by the end of the kingdom when the Numidian dynasty intermarried and mixed with thePtolemaic dynasty.[10]
^Baldauf, Richard B.; Kaplan, Robert B. (2007-01-01).Language Planning and Policy in Africa. Multilingual Matters. p. 38.ISBN978-1-84769-011-1.Numidic kings and elites spoke and used Punic as the official language while peasants spoke Berber. The Carthaginian idiom was in use until the third century CE
^Fage, J. D.; Oliver, Roland Anthony (1975).The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge University Press. p. 184.ISBN978-0-521-21592-3.Punic was employed as the official language of the Numidian kingdom, as is shown by monumental inscriptions and coin legends. Numidia even became something of a centre of Punic literary culture. In 146 BC the Romans presented to Micipsa the captured library of Carthage, and in the following century, as has been seen, a Numidian king (Hiempsal II) wrote a history of his country in Punic.
^abMorocco: Direction des affaires indigènes (1921).Villes et tribus du Maroc: documents et renseignements [Cities and tribes of Morocco: documents and information] (in French). Vol. 7. Paris: H. Champion. p. 35.Native Kings. Bokkar. At the beginning of the third century BC, Morocco was ruled by Bokkar, who resided in Tangier, the capital of the kingdom, and was a lieutenant of the Numidian king Syphax. In 202 BC, after Syphax's capture, he became a vassal of Massinissa.
^abCoissac, de Chavrebière (1931).Histoire du Maroc [History of Morocco] (in French). Paris: Payot. p. 36.The war turned to the advantage of Massinissa, ally of the Romans. Syphax was taken prisoner (202) and Bokkar became the vassal of the victor. "Massinissa," says St. Gsell, "dreamed of being for Punic civilization what the Macedonian...
^abRicard, Prosper (1925).Le Maroc [Morocco] (in French). Paris: Hachette. p. 386.In 202 BC, it was the residence, say the Ancients, of Bokkar, king of Morocco, lieutenant of Syphax the Numidian, vassal of Massinissa. In 105 BC, Bokkus [er, ally of Sylla, delivered his son-in-law to the Romans
^Telford, Lynda (2014).Sulla: A Dictator Reconsidered. Pen and Sword.ISBN9781473834507.
^Connolly, Peter; Gillingham, John; Lazenby, George (2016).The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare. Routledge. p. 171.ISBN9781135936747.
^abcQuinn, J. (2013). Monumental power: ‘Numidian Royal Architecture’ in context. In J. Prag & J. Quinn (Eds.), The Hellenistic West: Rethinking the Ancient Mediterranean (pp. 179-215). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139505987.008
Daho, Keltoum Kitouni; Filah, Mohamed El Mostéfa (2003).L'Algérie au temps des royaumes numides ["Algeria at the time of the Numidian kingdoms"] (in French). Somogy Editions d'Art.ISBN2850566527.
Horn, Heinz Günter; Rüger, Christoph B. (1979).Die Numider. Reiter und Könige nördlich der Sahara ["The Numidians. Horsemen and kings north of the Sahara"] (in German). Rheinland.ISBN3792704986.
Julien, Charles-andré (1983).كتاب تاريخ إفريقيا الشمالية - لـ شارل أندري جوليان، جزأين [History of North Africa - by Charles-André Julien, two parts] (in Arabic). Translated by Mazali, Mohamed; Ben salama, Al-Bachir (4th ed.). Tunis: Tunisian Publishing House.
Kuttner, Ann (2013). "Representing Hellenistic Numidia, in Africa and at Rome". In Jonathan R. W. Prag, Josephine Crawley Quinn (ed.).The Hellenistic West. Rethinking the Ancient Mediterranean. Cambridge University. pp. 216–272.ISBN978-1107032422.
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