| Northern Thai | |
|---|---|
| ᨣᩴᩤᨾᩮᩬᩥᨦ กำเมือง | |
 Tai Tham script traditionaltranscription (top) Thai alphabet currently popular with non-standard form (bottom) | |
| Pronunciation | [kam˧.mɯaŋ˧]ⓘ |
| Native to | Thailand (Chiang Mai,Lamphun, Lampang,Uttaradit, Phrae,Nan,Phayao, Chiang Rai,Mae Hong Son and Communities throughout Thailand) Myanmar (Tachileik,Myawaddy) Laos (Houayxay,Ton Pheung) |
| Region | Northern Thailand |
| Ethnicity | Northern Thai |
Native speakers | 6 million (2015)[1] |
Kra–Dai
| |
| Tai Tham script (traditional, formerly) Thai script (de facto, current) | |
| Official status | |
Recognised minority language in | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | nod |
| Glottolog | nort2740 |
Northern Thai (Thai:ภาษาไทยถิ่นเหนือ), also calledKam Mueang (Northern Thai:ᨣᩴᩤᨾᩮᩬᩥᨦ กำเมือง),Lanna orTai Yuan,[2] is the language spoken by theNorthern Thai people ofThailand. It is aSouthwestern Tai language. The language has approximately six million speakers, most of whom live inNorthern Thailand, with a smaller community of speakers in northwesternLaos.
Speakers of this language generally consider the name "Tai Yuan" to be pejorative[citation needed]. They refer to themselves asKhon Mueang (ᨤᩫ᩠ᨶᨾᩮᩬᩥᨦ,คนเมือง,[kʰon˧.mɯaŋ˧] – literally "people ofMueang" meaning "city dwellers"), Lanna, or Northern Thai. The language is also sometimes referred to asPhayap (พายัพ,Thai pronunciation:[pʰāː.jáp]), "Northwestern (speech)".
The term Yuan is still sometimes used for Northern Thai's distinctiveTai Tham alphabet, which is closely related to the old Tai Lue alphabet and the Lao religious alphabets. The use of theTua Mueang, as the traditional alphabet is known, is now largely limited to Buddhist temples, where many old sermon manuscripts are still in active use. There is no active production of literature in the traditional alphabet, and when used in writing standard Thai script is invariably used. The modern spoken form is calledKam Mueang. There is a resurgence of interest in writing it in the traditional way, but the modern pronunciation differs from that prescribed in spelling rules.[3]
Northern Thai is classified as one of the Chiang Saen branch, a model popularized by foundational linguists such as Fang-Kuei Li (1960) and Marvin Brown (1965), others beingThai,Southern Thai and numerous smaller languages, which together with the Northwestern Tai and Lao-Phutai languages, form theSouthwestern branch ofTai languages. The Tai languages are a branch of theKra–Dai language family, which encompasses a large number of indigenous languages spoken in an arc fromHainan andGuangxi south through Laos and Northern Vietnam to the Cambodian border.
From a purely genealogical standpoint, most linguists consider Northern Thai to be more closely related toCentral Thai than toLao orIsan, but the language has been heavily influenced by both Lao and Central Thai throughout history. All Southwestern Tai languages form a coherentdialect continuum of more or less mutually intelligible varieties, with few sharp dividing lines. However, this genealogical classification is increasingly contested by modern scholars. Critics argue that these groupings may reflect political "Thaification" and a drive for national unity rather than purely linguistic history. While the Chiang Saen group (including Central Thai, Northern Thai, and Southern Thai) is the standard model, it often masks the closer historical ties Northern Thai has with the Lao-Phutai branch.[4] Nevertheless, Northern Thai has today become closer to the Central Thai language, as Standard Thai is the principal language of education and government and spoken throughout Thailand.
| Kra-Dai |
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The Northern Thai language has various names in Northern Thai, Thai, and otherTai languages.
The ancestors of theNorthern Thai people were speakers of Southwestern Tai dialects that migrated from what is now southeastern China, specifically what is nowGuangxi and northernVietnam where the diversity of various Tai languages suggests anUrheimat. The Southwestern Tai languages began to diverge from the Northern and Central branches of the Tai languages, covered mainly by variousZhuang languages, sometime around 112 AD, but likely completed by thesixth century.[5] Due to the influx ofHan Chinese soldiers and settlers, the end of theChinese occupation of Vietnam, the fall ofJiaozhi and turbulence associated with the decline and fall of theTang dynasty led some of the Tai peoples speaking Southwestern Tai to flee into Southeast Asia, with the small-scale migration mainly taking place between theeighth andtwelfth centuries. The Tais split and followed the major river courses, with the ancestral Northern Thai originating in the Tai migrants that followed theMekong River.[6]
Ancestors of the Northern Thai people establishedNgoenyang, an early kingdom that existed between the 7th to 13th centuries, as well as smaller kingdoms likePhayao, in what is now modern-day northern Thailand. They settled in areas adjacent to the kingdom ofHariphunchai, coming into contact withMon-speaking people whose writing system was eventually adapted for the Northern Thai language as theTai Tham script.[7] In the 13th century, KingMangrai consolidated control of these territories, establishing the kingdom ofLan Na. In the 15th century, KingTilokkarat ushered in a golden age for Northern Thai literature, with a profusion ofpalm leaf manuscripts written in Tai Tham, using vernacular Northern Thai and interspersed with Pali and Buddhist Indic vocabulary.[8][7]
In 1775,Kawila of Lampang revolted with Siamese assistance, and captured the city, ending 200 years of Burmese rule. Kawila was installed as the prince of Lampang and Phraya Chaban as the prince of Chiang Mai, both as vassals of Siam. In 1899, Siam annexed the Northern Thai principalities, effectively dissolving their status as sovereign tributary states.
The Compulsory Education Act of 1921 banned schools and temples from using languages other thanCentral Thai (standard Thai), in an effort to bring remote regions under Siamese control.[7] Northern Thai was relegated from the public sphere, with influential religious leaders likeKhruba Srivichai jailed for using Northern Thai in sermons.[7] In the 1940s, authorities promulgatedThai cultural mandates that reinforced the importance of learning and using Central Thai as theprestige language.[7]
These economic and educational pressures have increased the use of standard Thai to the detriment of other regional languages like Northern Thai.[9][10] Today, Northern Thai is typicallycode-switched with standard Thai, especially in more developed and urbanized areas of Northern Thailand, whereas exclusive use of Northern Thai remains prevalent in more remote areas.[10]
Thanajirawat (2018)[11] classifies Tai Yuan into five major dialect groups based on tonal split and merger patterns. (See alsoProto-Tai language#Tones)
Northern Thai consonant inventory is similar to that ofLao (Isan); both languages have the/ɲ/ sound and lack/tɕʰ/.
| Labial | Dental/ Alveolar | (Alveolo-) Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | /m/ ᨾᩉ᩠ᨾ ม | /n/ ᨶᨱᩉ᩠ᨶ ณ, น | /ɲ/ ᨿᨬᩉ᩠ᨿ ญ, ย | /ŋ/ ᨦᩉ᩠ᨦ ง | ||
| Plosive/ Affricate | tenuis | /p/ ᨸᨻ ป | /t/ ᨲᨴᨭ ฏ, ต | /tɕ/ ᨧᨩ จ | /k/ ᨠᨣ ก | /ʔ/[a] ᩋ อ |
| aspirate | /pʰ/ ᨹᨽ ᨷᩕᨸᩕᨻᩕ ผ, พ, ภ | /tʰ/ ᨳᨮᨵᨰ ᨲᩕᨴᩕ ฐ, ฑ, ฒ, ถ, ท, ธ | (/tɕʰ/)[b] ฉ, ช, ฌ | /kʰ/ ᨡᨤᨥ ᨠᩕᨣᩕᨢᨡᩕ ข, ฃ, ค, ฅ, ฆ | ||
| voiced | /b/ ᨷ บ | /d/ ᨯ ฎ, ด | ||||
| Fricative | /f/ ᨺᨼ ฝ, ฟ | /s/ ᩈᩇᩆ ᨨᨪᨫ ซ, ศ, ษ, ส | (/x/)[b] | /h/ ᩉᩁ ᩌᩉᩕ ห, ฮ | ||
| Approximant | /w/ ᩅ ᩉ᩠ᩅ ว | /l/ ᩃᩁᩉᩖ ᩉ᩠ᩃᩊ ล, ฬ | /j/ ᩀ ย | |||
| Rhotic/Liquid | (/r/)[b] ᩁᩊ ร | |||||
There are two relatively common consonant clusters:
There are also several other, less frequent clusters recorded,[12] though apparently in the process of being lost:[13]
Allplosive sounds (besides the glottal stop /ʔ/) areunreleased. Hence, final/p/,/t/, and/k/ sounds are pronounced as[p̚],[t̚], and[k̚] respectively.
| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | /m/ᨾ ม | /n/ᨬ ᨱ ᨶ ᩁ ᩃ ᩊ ญ, ณ, น, ร, ล, ฬ | /ŋ/ᨦ ง | ||
| Plosive | /p/ᨷ ᨸ ᨻ ᨼ ᨽ บ, ป, พ, ฟ, ภ | /t/ᨧ ᨩ ᨪ ᨭ ᨮ ᨯ ᨰ ᨲ ᨳ ᨴ ᨵ ᩆ ᩇ ᩈ จ, ช, ซ, ฌ, ฎ, ฏ, ฐ, ฑ, ฒ ,ด, ต, ถ, ท, ธ, ศ, ษ, ส | /k/ᨠ ᨡ ᨣ ᨥ ก, ข, ค, ฆ | /ʔ/[a] | |
| Approximant | /w/ᩅ ว | /j/ᨿ ย |
The basic vowels of the Northern Thai language are similar to those ofStandard Thai. They, from front to back and close to open, are given in the following table. The top entry in every cell is the symbol from theInternational Phonetic Alphabet, the second entry gives the spelling in theThai alphabet, where a dash (–) indicates the position of the initial consonant after which the vowel is pronounced. A second dash indicates that a final consonant must follow.
| Front | Central | Back | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| short | long | short | long | short | long | |
| Close | /i/ -ิ | /iː/ -ี | /ɯ/ -ึ | /ɯː/ -ื- | /u/ -ุ | /uː/ -ู |
| Mid | /e/ เ-ะ | /eː/ เ- | /ɤ/ เ-อะ | /ɤː/ เ-อ | /o/ โ-ะ | /oː/ โ- |
| Open | /ɛ/ แ-ะ | /ɛː/ แ- | /a/ -ะ, -ั- | /aː/ -า | /ɔ/ เ-าะ | /ɔː/ -อ |
The vowels each exist inlong-short pairs: these are distinctphonemes forming unrelated words in Northern Thai,[16] but usually transliterated the same: เขา (khao) means "they/them", while ขาว (khao) means "white".
The long-short pairs are as follows:
| Long | Short | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Thai | IPA | Example | Thai | IPA | Example | ||||||
| –า | /aː/ | ᨺᩣ᩠ᨶ | ฝาน | /fǎːn/ | 'to slice' | –ะ | /a/ | ᨺᩢ᩠ᨶ | ฝัน | /fǎn/ | 'to dream' |
| –ี | /iː/ | ᨲᩦ | ตี๋ | /tǐː/ | 'to cut' | –ิ | /i/ | ᨲᩥ | ติ๋ | /tǐʔ/ | 'to criticize' |
| –ู | /uː/ | ᩈᩪᨯ | สูด | /sùːt/ | 'to inhale' | –ุ | /u/ | ᩈᩩᨯ | สุ๋ด | /sǔt/ | 'rearmost' |
| เ– | /eː/ | ᩋᩮ᩠ᨶ | เอน | /ʔēːn/ | 'to recline' | เ–ะ | /e/ | ᩋᩮᩢ᩠ᨶ | เอ็น | /ʔēn/ | 'tendon, ligament' |
| แ– | /ɛː/ | ᨠᩯ᩵ | แก่ | /kɛ̀ː/ | 'to be old' | แ–ะ | /ɛ/ | ᨠᩯᩡ | แก๋ะ | /kɛ̌ʔ/ | 'sheep' |
| –ื- | /ɯː/ | ᨤᩨ᩠ᨶ | ฅืน (คืน) | /kʰɯ̄ːn/ | 'to return' | –ึ | /ɯ/ | ᨡᩧ᩠᩶ᨶ | ขึ้น | /kʰɯ᷇n/ | 'to go up' |
| เ–อ | /ɤː/ | ᨾᩮᩥ᩠ᨶ | เมิน | /mɤː̄n/ | 'to delay; long time' | เ–อะ | /ɤ/ | ᨦᩮᩥ᩠ᨶ | เงิน | /ŋɤ̄n/ | 'silver' |
| โ– | /oː/ | ᨧᩰᩫ᩠ᩁ | โจ๋ร (โจ๋น) | /tɕǒːn/ | 'thief' | โ–ะ | /o/ | ᨧᩫ᩠ᨶ | จ๋น | /tɕǒn/ | 'to be poor' |
| –อ | /ɔː/ | ᩃᩬᨦ | ลอง | /lɔ̄ːŋ/ | 'to try' | เ–าะ | /ɔ/ | ᨪᩰᩬᩡ | เซาะ | /sɔ́ʔ/ | 'to search' |
The basic vowels can be combined intodiphthongs. For purposes of determining tone, those marked with an asterisk are sometimes classified as long:
| Long | Short | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Thai script | IPA | Thai script | IPA |
| –าย | /aːj/ | ไ–*, ใ–*, ไ–ย, -ัย | /aj/ |
| –าว | /aːw/ | เ–า* | /aw/ |
| เ–ีย | /ia/ | เ–ียะ | /iaʔ/ |
| – | – | –ิว | /iw/ |
| –ัว | /ua/ | –ัวะ | /uaʔ/ |
| –ูย | /uːj/ | –ุย | /uj/ |
| เ–ว | /eːw/ | เ–็ว | /ew/ |
| แ–ว | /ɛːw/ | – | – |
| เ–ือ | /ɯa/ | เ–ือะ | /ɯaʔ/ |
| เ–ย | /ɤːj/ | – | – |
| –อย | /ɔːj/ | – | – |
| โ–ย | /oːj/ | – | – |
Additionally, there are threetriphthongs, For purposes of determining tone, those marked with an asterisk are sometimes classified as long:
| Thai script | IPA |
|---|---|
| เ–ียว* | /iaw/ |
| –วย* | /uaj/ |
| เ–ือย* | /ɯaj/ |
The following section largely concerns the Nan dialect of Northern Thai.[17]
| Phoneme | Allophone | Context | Example | Example | IPA | Gloss |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| /b/ | [b] | onset | ᨷ᩵ᩤ | บ่า | /bàː/ | shoulder |
| /d/ | [d] | onset | ᨯᩬ᩠ᨿ, ᨯᩭ | ดอย | /dɔ̄ːj/ | mountain |
| /p/ | [p] | onset | ᨸ᩵ᩣ | ป่า | /pàː/ | forest |
| [p̚] | coda | ᩋᩣ᩠ᨷ | อาบ | /ʔàːp/ | bath | |
| [pm̩] | coda, emphasised | ᨷᩴ᩵ᩉᩖᩢᨷ | บ่หลับ | /bɔ̀lǎp/ | don't sleep! | |
| /t/ | [t] | onset | ᨲᩣ | ตา | /tǎː/ | eye |
| [t̚] | coda | ᨸᩮᩥ᩠ᨯ | เปิด | /pɤ̀ːt/ | open | |
| [tn̩] | coda, emphasised | ᨷᩴ᩵ᨹᩮᩢ᩠ᨯ | บ่เผ็ด | /bɔ̀pʰět/ | not spicy! | |
| /k/ | [k] | onset | ᨠᩣ | กา | /kǎː/ | crow |
| [k̚] | coda | ᨸᩦ᩠ᨠ | ปีก | /pìːk/ | wing | |
| [kŋ̩] | coda, emphasised | ᨷᩴ᩵ᩈᩩᨠ | บ่สุก | /bɔ̀sǔk/ | not ripe! | |
| /x/ | [x] | before non-front vowels | ᨡᩯ᩠ᨠ | แขก | /xɛ̀ːk/ | guest |
| [ç] | before front vowels | ᨤᩥ᩠ᨦ | ฅิง | /xīŋ/ | you (familiar) | |
| /s/ | [s] | onset | ᨪᩣ᩠ᩅ | ซาว | /sāːw/ | twenty |
| [ɕ] | under emphasis | ᩈᩣᨴᩩ | สาทุ | /sǎː.túʔ/ | surely | |
| /h/ | [h] | non-intervocalic | ᩉ᩶ᩣ | ห้า | /ha᷇ː/ | five |
| [ɦ] | intervocalic | ᨹᩲᨾᩣᩉᩣ | ใผมาหา | /pʰǎjmāːhǎː/ | who come find (Who is here to see you?) | |
| /nɯ̂ŋ/ | [m̩] | after bilabial stop | ᨤᩨ᩠ᨷᨶᩧ᩠᩵ᨦ | ฅืบนึ่ง | /xɯ̂ːpnɯ̂ŋ/ | span one (one more span) |
| [n̩] | after alveolar stop | ᨳᩯ᩠ᨾᨡ᩠ᩅᨯᨶᩧ᩠᩵ᨦ | แถมขวดนึ่ง | /tʰɛ̌ːmxùatnɯ̂ŋ/ | more bottle one (one more bottle) | |
| [ŋ̩] | after velar stop | ᨳᩯ᩠ᨾᨯᩬᨠᨶᩧ᩠᩵ᨦ | แถมดอกนึ่ง | /tʰɛ̌ːmdɔ̀ːknɯ̂ŋ/ | more flower one (one more flower) |
There are six phonemictones in theChiang Mai dialect of Northern Thai: low-rising, low-falling, high-level with glottal closure, mid-level, high-falling, and high-rising.[18] or low-rising, mid-low, high-falling, mid-high, falling, and high rising-falling[19]
The table below presents six phonemic tones in the Chiang Mai dialects in smooth syllables, i.e. closed syllables ending insonorant sounds such as [m], [n], [ŋ], [w], and [j] and open syllables. Sources have not agreed on the phonetic realization of the six tones in the Chiang Mai dialect. The table presents information based on two sources, one from Gedney (1999)[19] and the other one from the Lanna dictionary (2007)[18] which is a Northern Thai-Thai dictionary. Although published in 1999, Gedney's information about the Chiang Mai dialect is based on data he collected from one speaker in Chiang Mai in 1964 (p. 725). As tones may change within one's lifetime (e.g., Bangkok Thai tones have changed over the past 100 years[20]), the information about the six tones from Gedney (1999) should be considered with caution.
| Chiang Mai (the Lanna dictionary, 2007, p. ต)[18] | Chiang Mai (Gedney, 1999, p. 725)[19] | Standard Thai tone Equated to[21] | Example based on the Chiang Mai tones described in the Lanna Dictionary (2007)[18] | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Name | Tone letters | Name | Tone letters | Tone letters | Phonemic | Phonetic | Northern Thai script | Thai script | Gloss | |
| low-rising (A1-2) | 24 or ˨˦ | low-rising (A1-2) | 14 or ˩˦ | 23 or ˨˧ | rising | /lǎw/ | [läu̯˨˦] | ᩉᩮᩖᩢᩣ | เหลา | sharpen |
| low-falling (B1-3) | 21 or ˨˩ | mid-low (B1-3) | 22 or ˨˨ | 22 or ˨˨ | low | /làw/ | [läu̯˨˨] | ᩉᩮᩖᩢ᩵ᩣ | เหล่า | forest; group |
| high-level with glottal closure (which falls slightly at the end[18]) (C1-3) | 44ʔ or ˦˦ʔ | high-falling, glottalized (C1-3) | 53ʔ or ˥˧ʔ | 44ʔ or ˦˦ʔ | (none) | /la᷇w/ | [läu̯˦˦ʔ] | ᩉᩮᩖᩢ᩶ᩣ | เหล้า | liquor, alcoholic drink |
| mid-level (A3-4) | 33 or ˧˧ | mid-high (A3-4) (which sometimes rises at the end[19]) | 44 or ˦˦ | 35 or ˧˥ | mid | /lāw/ | [läu̯˧˧] | ᩃᩮᩢᩣ | เลา | beautiful, pretty; reed |
| high-falling (B4) | 42 or ˦˨ | falling (B4) | 41 or ˦˩ | 31 or ˧˩ | falling | /lâw/ | [läu̯˦˨] | ᩃᩮᩢ᩵ᩣ | เล่า | tell (a story) |
| high-rising (C4) | 45 or ˦˥ | high rising-falling, glottalized (C4) | 454ʔ or ˦˥˦ʔ | 41ʔ or ˦˩ʔ | high | /láw/ | [läu̯˦˥] | ᩃᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ | เล้า | coop, pen (for chickens or pigs) |
The Gedney boxes for the tones are shown below the descriptions.
The table below presents four phonemic tones in checked syllables, i.e. closed syllables ending in aglottal stop [ʔ] andobstruent sounds such as [p], [t], and [k].
| Tone[18] | Standard Thai Tone Equated to[21] | Example (Northern Thai script) | Example (Thai script) | Phonemic | Phonetic[18] | gloss |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| low-rising (D1-3S) | rising | ᩉᩖᩢᨠ | หลั๋ก | /lǎk/ | [läk̚˨˦] | post |
| high-rising (D4S) | high | ᩃᩢ᩠ᨠ | ลัก | /la᷇k/ | [läk̚˦˥] | steal |
| low-falling (D1-3L) | low | ᩉᩖᩣ᩠ᨠ | หลาก | /làːk/ | [läːk̚˨˩] | differ from others |
| high-falling (D4L) | falling | ᩃᩣ᩠ᨠ | ลาก | /lâːk/ | [läːk̚˦˨] | drag |
The grammar of Northern Thai is similar to those of otherTai languages. Theword order issubject–verb–object, although the subject is oftenomitted. Just asStandard Thai, Northern Thai pronouns are selected according to the gender and relative status of speaker and audience.
There is no morphological distinction betweenadverbs andadjectives. Many words can be used in either function. They succeed the word which they modify, which may be a noun, verb, or another adjective or adverb.
Because adjectives can be used as complete predicates, many words used to indicate tense in verbs (see Verbs:Aspect below) may be used to describe adjectives.
Verbs do notinflect. They do not change with person, tense, voice, mood, or number; nor are there anyparticiples.
Thepassive voice is indicated by the insertion ofᨯᩰᩫ᩠ᨶ / โดน (don,[dōːn]) before the verb. For example:
To convey the opposite sense, a sense of having an opportunity arrive,ᨯᩱ᩶ / ได้ (dai,[da᷇j], can) is used. For example:
Negation is indicated by placing บ่ (bor,[bɔ̀ː] or[bàʔ] not) before the verb.
Aspect is conveyed byaspect markers before or after the verb.
Aspect markers are not required.
Words that indicate obligation includeat cha (ᩋᩣ᩠ᨧᨧᩢ / อาจจะ),na cha (ᩉ᩠ᨶ᩶ᩣᨧᩢ / หน้าจะ),khuan cha (ᨤ᩠ᩅᩁᨧᩢ / ควรจะ)[dubious –discuss], andtong (ᨲ᩶ᩬᨦ / ต้อง).
Actions that wherein one is busily engaged can be indicated by มัวก่า (mua ka,[mūa̯.kàː]).
Words that express one's desire to do something can by indicated bykhai (ใค่) andkan (กั๊น).
Phor tha wa (ᨹᩬᩴ᩵ᨵ᩵ᩤᩅ᩵ / ผ่อท่าว่า,[pʰɔ̀ː.tʰâː.wâː]) is used to give the impression or sensation of being something or having a particular quality.
Northern Thai has a number of final particles, which have different functions.
Some of the most common interrogative particles arekor (ᨣᩴ᩵ / ก่อ,[kɔ̀ː]) andka (ᨣᩤ / กา,/kāː/)
Some imperative particles areᩃᩯ᩵ (แล่),ᨧᩥ᩠᩵ᨾ (จิ่ม), andᨴᩮᩬᩥᩡ (เตอะ).
lae (ᩃᩯ᩵ / แล่,[lɛ̂ː])
chim (ᨧᩥ᩠᩵ᨾ / จิ่ม,[t͡ɕìm])
hia (ᩉᩮ᩠ᨿ / เหีย,/hǐa/)
toe (ᨴᩮᩬᩥᩡ / เต๊อะ,/tɤ᷇ʔ/)
Polite particles includeᨣᩕᩢ᩠ᨷ (คับ) andᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ (เจ้า).
Nouns areuninflected and have nogender; there are noarticles.
Nouns are neithersingular norplural. Some specific nouns arereduplicated to formcollectives:ᩃᩡᩋᩬ᩵ᩁ / ละอ่อน (la-orn,[la.ʔɔ̀ːn], child) is often repeated asᩃᩡᩋᩬ᩵ᩁᪧ ละอ่อน ๆ (la-orn la-orn,[la.ʔɔ̀ːnla.ʔɔ̀ːn],) to refer to a group of children.
The wordᩉ᩠ᨾᩪ᩵ / หมู่(mu,[mùː]) may be used as a prefix of a noun or pronoun as a collective to pluralize or emphasise the following word. (ᩉ᩠ᨾᩪ᩵ᨹᩫ᩠ᨾ / หมู่ผม,mu phom,[mùːpʰǒm],we (exclusive), masculine;ᩉ᩠ᨾᩪ᩵ᩁᩮᩢᩣ / หมู่เฮาmu hao,[mùːhāw], emphasisedwe;ᩉ᩠ᨾᩪ᩵ᩉ᩠ᨾᩣ / หมู่หมาmu ma,[mùːmǎː],(the) dogs).
Plurals are expressed by addingclassifiers, used asmeasure words (ลักษณนาม), in the form of noun-number-classifier (ᨣᩕᩪᩉ᩶ᩣᨤᩫ᩠ᨶ / คูห้าคน, "teacher five person" for "five teachers").
Pronouns may be omitted once they have already been established in the first sentence, unless the pronoun in the following sentences is different from the first sentence. The pronoun "you" may also be omitted if the speaker is speaking directly to a second person. Moreover, names may replace pronouns, and they can even replace the first person singular pronoun.
| Person | Tai Tham script | Thai script | Transliteration | Phonemic (IPA) | Phonetic (IPA) | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| first | ᨣᩪ | กู | ku | /kūː/ | [kuː˧] | I/me (impolite/vulgar) |
| ᩁᩣ | ฮา | ha | /hāː/ | [häː˧] | I/me (from high-status to low-status or familiar; informal) | |
| ᨡ᩶ᩣ | ข้า | kha | /kʰa᷇ː/ | [kʰäː˥˧] | I/me (formal; used by male). Literally "servant, slave". | |
| ᨹᩪ᩶ᨡ᩶ᩣ | ผู้ข้า | phukha | /pʰu᷇ː.kʰa᷇ː/ | [pʰuː˥˧.kʰäː˥˧] | I/me (formal) | |
| ᨡ᩶ᩣᨶᩬ᩠᩶ᨿ, ᨡ᩶ᩣᨶ᩶ᩭ | ข้าน้อย | kha noi | /kʰa᷇ː nɔ́ːj/ | [kʰäː˥˧ nɔːi̯˦˥] | I/me (formal; used by male/archaic) | |
| ᨡ᩶ᩣᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ | ข้าเจ้า | kha chao | /kʰa᷇ː tɕa᷇w/ | [kʰäː˥˧.t͡ɕäu̯˥˧] | I/me (formal; used by female/historically also used by male) | |
| ᨡ᩶ᩣᨻᩕᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ | ข้าผะเจ้า | khaphachao | /kʰa᷇ː.pʰa.tɕa᷇w/ | [kʰäː˥˧.pʰä˨.t͡ɕäu̯˥˧] | I/me (very formal) | |
| ᩁᩮᩢᩣ | เฮา | hao | /hāw/ | [häu̯˧] | we/us (common) | |
| ᨲᩪ | ตู๋ | tu | /tǔː/ | [t̪uː˨˦] | we/us (exclusive) | |
| second | ᨾᩧ᩠ᨦ | มึง | muenɡ | /mɯ̄ŋ/ | [mɯŋ˧] | you (impolite/vulgar) |
| ᨤᩥ᩠ᨦ | ฅิง | khing | /kʰīŋ/ | [kʰiŋ˧] | you (from high-status to low-status or familiar; informal/singular) | |
| ᨲᩫ᩠ᩅ | ตั๋ว | tua | /tǔa/ | [tua˨˦] | you (familiar/singular) | |
| ᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ | เจ้า | chao | /tɕa᷇w/ | [tɕäw˥˧] | you (formal/singular). Literally "master, lord" | |
| ᩈᩪ | สู | su | /sǔː/ | [suː˨˦] | you (informal; plural or formal/singular) | |
| ᩈᩪᨡᩮᩢᩣ | สูเขา | su khao | /sǔː kʰǎw/ | [suː˨˦ kʰäw˨˦] | you (informal/plural) | |
| ᩈᩪᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ | สูเจ้า | su chao | /sǔː tɕa᷇w/ | [suː˨˦ tɕäw˥˧] | you (formal/plural) | |
| third | ᨾᩢ᩠ᨶ | มัน | man | /mān/ | [män˧] | it, he/she (offensive if used to refer to a person) |
| ᨡᩮᩢᩣ | เขา | khao | /kʰǎw/ | [kʰäw˨˦] | they/them | |
| ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶ | เปิ้น | poen | /pɤ̂n/ | [pɤn˥˩] | he/she (general), others | |
| ᨴ᩵ᩤ᩠ᨶ | ต้าน | tan | /tâːn/ | [täːn˥˩] | he/she (formal), you (formal), others | |
| reflexive | ᨲᩫ᩠ᩅᨠᩮᩢ᩵ᩣ | ตั๋วเก่า | tua kaw | /tǔa kàw/ | [tua˨˦ käw˨˩] | oneself |
Northern Thai shares much vocabulary with Standard Thai, especially scientific terms, which draw many prefixes and suffixes fromSanskrit andPali, and it also has its own distinctive words. Just like Thai and Lao, Northern Thai has borrowed many loanwords fromKhmer, Sanskrit, and Pali.
| word | gloss | origin |
|---|---|---|
| [kʰɔ̌ːŋkǐn] ᨡᩬᨦᨠᩥ᩠ᨶ ของกิ๋น | food | nativeTai word |
| [ʔāː.hǎːn] ᩋᩣᩉᩣ᩠ᩁ อาหาร | food | Pali and/or Sanskrit |
| [kàm.nɤ̀ːt] ᨠ᩵ᩣᩴᨶᩮᩥ᩠ᨭ ก่ำเนิด (กำเนิด)[dubious –discuss] | birth | Khmer |
Currently, different scripts are used to write Northern Thai. Northern Thai is traditionally written with theTai Tham script, which in Northern Thai is calledtua mueang (ᨲᩫ᩠ᩅᨾᩮᩬᩥᨦ ตั๋วเมือง/tǔa.mɯ̄aŋ/) ortua tham (ᨲᩫ᩠ᩅᨵᩢᨾ᩠ᨾ᩺ ตั๋วธัมม์/tǔa.tʰām/). However, native speakers are presently illiterate in the traditional script;[citation needed] therefore, they instead use theThai script to write the language.[citation needed] InLaos, theLao script is commonly used to write Northern Thai.[citation needed]
Some problems arise when the Thai script is used to write Northern Thai. In particular, Standard Thai script cannot transcribe all Northern Thai tones. The two falling tones in Northern Thai correspond to a single falling tone in Thai. Specifically, Northern Thai has two types of falling tones: high-mid falling tone (˥˧) and high-falling tone (˥˩). However, Thai lacks the distinction between the two falling tones, not having a high-falling tone (˥˧). When using Thai script to write Northern Thai tones, the distinction of the two falling tones is lost because Thai script can only indicate a low falling tone (˥˩). As an example, the tonal distinction between/ka᷇ː/ (ก้า (ᨠᩖ᩶ᩣ กล้า) "to be brave") and/kâː/ (ก้า (ᨣ᩵ᩤ ค่า) "value") is lost when written in Thai since as only/kâː/ (ก้า) is permitted. Consequently, the meaning of ก้า is ambiguous as it can mean both "to be brave" and "value". Similarly,/pa᷇ːj/ (ป้าย (ᨸ᩶ᩣ᩠ᨿ ป้าย) "sign") and/pâːj/ (ป้าย (ᨻ᩵ᩣ᩠ᨿ พ่าย) "to lose") have the same problem and only/pâːj/ (ป้าย) is permitted. As a result, the spelling ป้าย is ambiguous because it can mean both "sign" or "to lose". Such tonal mergence ambiguity is avoided when the language is written with the Northern Thai script.
The tables below present the differences between Northern Thai and Standard Thai.
Unlike Northern Thai, Standard Thai lacksalveolo-palatal nasal sound (/ɲ/). Thus, the alveolo-palatal nasal sound (/ɲ/) and the palatal approximant sound (/j/) in Northern Thai both correspond to the palatal approximant sound in Standard Thai:
| Standard Thai | Northern Thai | gloss | note |
|---|---|---|---|
| [jâːk] ยาก | [ɲâːk] ᨿᩣ᩠ᨠ | difficult | cf.Lao:ຍາກ [ɲâːk] |
| [jūŋ] ยุง | [ɲūŋ] ᨿᩩᨦ | mosquito | cf.Lao:ຍຸງ [ɲúŋ] |
| [jāːw] ยาว | [ɲāːw] ᨿᩣ᩠ᩅ | long | cf.Lao:ຍາວ [ɲáːw] |
| [jāː] ยา | [jāː] ᩀᩣ | medicine | cf.Lao:ຢາ [jàː] |
| [jàːk] อยาก | [jàːk] ᩀᩣ᩠ᨠ | desire | cf.Lao:ຢາກ [jȁːk] |
| [jàːŋ] อย่าง | [jàːŋ] ᩀ᩵ᩣ᩠ᨦ | manner, way | cf.Lao:ຢ່າງ [jāːŋ] |
Unlike Northern Thai, Standard Thai lacks a high-mid-falling tone ([˥˧]). The high-mid falling tone ([˥˧]) and high-falling tone ([˦˩]) in Northern Thai both correspond to the falling tone in Standard Thai ([˦˩]).
| Standard Thai | Northern Thai | gloss |
|---|---|---|
| [bâːn] บ้าน | [ba᷇ːn] ᨷ᩶ᩤ᩠ᨶ | village, home |
| [hâː] ห้า | [ha᷇ː] ᩉ᩶ᩣ | five |
| [tɕâw] เจ้า | [tɕa᷇w] ᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ | master, lord, you |
| [lâw] เหล้า | [la᷇w] ᩉᩖᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ | alcohol |
| [lâw] เล่า | [lâw] ᩃᩮᩢ᩵ᩣ | tell (a story) |
Many words differ from Standard Thai greatly:
| Standard Thai | Northern Thai | gloss | note |
|---|---|---|---|
| [jîː sìp] ยี่สิบ | [sāːw] ᨪᩣ᩠ᩅ ซาว | twenty | cf.Lao:ຊາວ [sáːw] "twenty" andShan:သၢဝ်း [sáːw] "twenty" |
| [pʰûːt] พูด | [ʔu᷇ː] ᩋᩪ᩶ อู้ | speak | |
| [pʰîː tɕʰāːj] พี่ชาย | [ʔa᷇ːj] ᩋ᩶ᩣ᩠ᨿ อ้าย | older brother | cf.Lao:ອ້າຍ [ʔâːj] "older brother" andShan:ဢၢႆႈ [ʔāːj] "eldest brother, first born son" |
| [tʰáːj tʰɔ̄ːj] ท้ายทอย | [ŋɔ̂n] ᨦᩬ᩵ᩁ ง่อน | nape | cf.Lao:ງ່ອນ [ŋɔ̄n] "nape" |
| [tɕā.mùːk] จมูก | [dāŋ] ᨯᩢ᩠ᨦ ดัง | nose | cf.Lao:ດັງ [dàŋ] "nose", Standard Thai: ดั้ง [dâŋ] "nasal bridge". |
| [tʰām] ทำ | [ɲa᷇ʔ] ᨿᩡ/ᨿᩮ᩠ᨿᩡ ยะ/เยียะ | do | |
| [dūː] ดู | [pʰɔ̀ː] ᨹᩬᩴ᩵ ผ่อ | look | cf.Lao:ຜໍ່ [pʰɔ̄ː] "to see, to look" andTai Lü:ᦕᦸᧈ [pʰɔ̀ː] "to see, to look" |
| [tʰîaw] เที่ยว | [ʔɛ̀w] ᩋᩯ᩠ᩅ᩵ แอ่ว | visit, travel | cf.Tai Lü:ᦶᦀᧁᧈ [ʔɛ᷄w] "to visit, to travel" |
| [nɯ́a] เนื้อ | [tɕín] ᨩᩥ᩠᩶ᨶ จิ๊น | meat | cf.Lao:ຊີ້ນ [sîːn] "meat" |
| [mâj] ไม่ | [bɔ̀ː] ᨷᩴ᩵ บ่อ | no | cf.Lao:ບໍ່ [bɔ̄ː] "no, not" |
| [tɕʰɔ̂ːp] ชอบ | [ma᷇k] ᨾᩢ᩠ᨠ มัก | like | cf.Lao:ມັກ [māk] "to like" |
| [mâːk] มาก | [na᷇k] ᨶᩢ᩠ᨠ นัก | much, many | |
| [dɤ̄ːn] เดิน | [tīaw] ᨴ᩠ᨿᩅ เตียว | walk | cf.Tai Lü:ᦵᦑᧁ [têw] "to walk" |
| [wîŋ] วิ่ง | [lôn] ᩃᩫ᩠᩵ᨶ ล่น | run | |
| [hǔa rɔ́ʔ] หัวเราะ | [kʰâj hǔa] ᨣᩕᩲ᩵ᩉ᩠ᩅᩫ | laugh | cf.Tai Lü:ᦺᦆᧈᦷᦠ [xāj hó] "to laugh" |
| [sā.nùk] สนุก | [mûan] ᨾ᩠ᩅ᩵ᩁ | funny, amusing | cf.Lao:ມ່ວນ [mūan] "fun, amusing, pleasant", Tai Lü:ᦷᦙᦓᧈ [mōn] "fun, amusing, pleasant", andShan:မူၼ်ႈ [mōn] "fun, amusing, pleasant" |
| [kōː hòk] โกหก | [tɕúʔ] ᨧᩩ | lie | cf.Tai Lü:ᦈᦳ [tsu᷄ʔ] "to lie, to deceive" |
| [ʔā.rāj] อะไร | [ʔā.ɲǎŋ] ᩋᩉ᩠ᨿᩢᨦ อะหยัง | what | cf.Lao:ອີ່ຫຍັງ [ʔī.ɲǎŋ] "what" |
| [dèk] เด็ก | [lā.ʔɔ̀n] ᩃᩋᩬ᩵ᩁ ละอ่อน | child | cf.Tai Lü:ᦟᦳᧅᦀᦸᧃᧈ [lūk.ʔɔ᷄n] "child, young offspring" |
| [pʰráʔ] พระ | [túʔ tɕa᷇w] ᨴᩩᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ ตุ๊เจ้า | Buddhist monk | cf.Tai Lü:ᦑᦳᦈᧁᧉ [tūʔ tsa᷅w] "Buddhist monk" |
There is not a straightforward correspondence between the tones of Northern and Standard Thai. It also depends on the initial consonant, as can be seen from the mergedGedney tone boxes for Standard Thai and the accent of Chiang Mai:
| Ancestral tone: | A (smooth, no tone mark) | B (mai ek) | DL (checked, long vowel) | DS (dead, short vowel) | C (mai tho) | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Initial Consonant | Std Thai | CM NT | gloss | Std Thai | CM NT | gloss | Std Thai | CM NT | gloss | Std Thai | CM NT | gloss | Std Thai | CM NT | gloss |
| 1. High | rising | low-rising | ear | low | mid-low | four | low | low | to hit | low | low-rising | to dig | falling | high-falling | old |
| /hǔː/ หู | /hǔː/ ᩉᩪ หู | /sìː/ สี่ | /sìː/ ᩈᩦ᩵ สี่ | /tʰùːk/ ถูก | /tʰùːk/ ᨳᩪᨠ ถูก | /kʰùt/ ขุด | /kʰǔt/ ᨡᩩᨯ ขุ๋ด | /tʰâw/ เฒ่า | /tʰa᷇w/ ᨳᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ เฒ่า | ||||||
| 2. CM High but Std Mid (= Std Thai ก ต ป) | mid | low-rising | eye | low | mid-low | turtle | low | low | mouth | low | low-rising | to fall | falling | high-falling | aunt |
| /tāː/ ตา | /tǎː/ ᨲᩣ ต๋า | /tàw/ เต่า | /tàw/ ᨲᩮᩢ᩵ᩣ เต่า | /pàːk/ ปาก | /pàːk/ ᨯᩬᨠ ปาก | /tòk/ ตก | /tǒk/ ᨲᩫ᩠ᨠ ต๋ก | /pâː/ ป้า | /pa᷇ː/ ᨸ᩶ᩣ ป้า | ||||||
| 3. Mid for Both (= Std Thai ด บ อ อย) | mid | mid-high | good | low | mid-low | to scold | low | low | flower | low | low-rising | to bend | falling | high-falling | mad |
| /dīː/ ดี | /dīː/ ᨯᩦ ดี | /dàː/ ด่า | /dà:/ ᨯ᩵ᩣ ด่า | /dɔ̀ːk/ ดอก | /dɔ̀ːk/ ᨯᩬᨠ ดอก | /dàt/ ดัด | /dǎt/ ᨯᩢ᩠ᨯ ดั่ด | /bâː/ บ้า | /ba᷇ː/ ᨷ᩶ᩤ บ้า | ||||||
| 4. Low | mid | mid-high | fly | falling | falling | mother | falling | falling | knife | high | high-falling | bird | high | high rising-falling | horse |
| /bīn/ บิน | /bīn/ ᨷᩥ᩠ᨶ บิน | /mɛ̂ː/ แม่ | /mɛ̂ː/ ᨾᩯ᩵ แม่ | /mîːt/ มีด | /mîːt/ ᨾᩦ᩠ᨯ มีด | /nók/ นก | /no᷇k/ ᨶᩫ᩠ᨠ นก | /máː/ ม้า | /máː/ ᨾ᩶ᩣ ม้า | ||||||
Note that the commonalities between columns are features of the Chiang Mai accent. On the other hand, the relationships between rows are typical of Northern Thai, being found for at least for Chiang Mai,Chiang Rai,[22]Phayao,[22]Nan andPrae,[22] and extending at least toTak[22] and the old 6-tone accent ofTai Khuen,[22] except that the checked syllables of Chiang Rai are more complicated.
The primary function of a tone box is etymological. However, it also serves as a summary of the rules for tone indication when the writing system is essentially etymological in that regard, as is the case with the major Tai-language writing systems using the Thai, Lanna, New Tai Lue, Lao and Tai Dam scripts.
Some words differ only as a result of the regular tone correspondences:
| Standard Thai | Northern Thai | gloss |
|---|---|---|
| [hòk] หก | [hǒk][23] ᩉᩫ᩠ᨠ ห๋ก | six |
| [tɕèt] เจ็ด | [tɕět][24] ᨧᩮᩢ᩠ᨯ เจ๋ด | seven |
| [sìp] สิบ | [sǐp][25] ᩈᩥ᩠ᨷ สิ๋บ | ten |
| [pēn] เป็น | [pěn] ᨸᩮ᩠ᨶ เป๋น | be (copula) |
| [kīn] กิน | [kǐn] ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶ กิ๋น | eat |
Other tone differences are unpredictable, such as:
| Standard Thai | Northern Thai | gloss |
|---|---|---|
| [nɯ̀ŋ] หนึ่ง | [nɯ̂ŋ] ᨶᩧ᩠᩵ᨦ นึ่ง | one |
Some words differ in a single sound and associated tone. In many words, the initial ร (/r/) in Standard Thai corresponds to ฮ (/h/) in Northern Thai:
| Standard Thai | Northern Thai | gloss | note |
|---|---|---|---|
| [rɔ́ːn] ร้อน | [hɔ́ːn] ᩁᩬ᩶ᩁ ฮ้อน | hot | cf.Lao: ຮ້ອນ [hɔ̂ːn] "to be hot" andShan:ႁွၼ်ႉ [hɔ̰n] "to be hot" |
| [rák] รัก | [ha᷇k] ᩁᩢ᩠ᨠ ฮัก | love | cf.Lao: ຮັກ [hāk] "to love" andShan:ႁၵ်ႉ [ha̰k] "to love" |
| [rúː] รู้ | [húː] ᩁᩪ᩶ ฮู้ | know | cf.Lao: ຮູ້ [hûː] "know" andShan:ႁူ [hṵ] "know" |
Someaspirated consonants in the low-class consonant group (อักษรต่ำ /ʔàk.sɔ̌ːn.tàm/) in Standard Thai correspond tounaspirated sounds in Northern Thai. These sounds include ค, ช, ท, and พ (/kʰ/, /tɕʰ/, /tʰ/, and /pʰ/ respectively), but sounds such as ฅ, คร, ฆ, ฒ, พร, ภ (/kʰ/, /kʰr/, /kʰ/, /tʰ/, /pʰr/, and /pʰ/ respectively) remain aspirated. Such aspirated consonants that are unaspirated in Northern Thai correspond to unaspirated voiced sounds inProto-Tai which are *ɡ, *ɟ, *d, and *b (ค, ช, ท, and พ respectively).:
| Standard Thai | Northern Thai | gloss | note |
|---|---|---|---|
| [tɕʰīaŋ rāːj] เชียงราย | [tɕīaŋ hāːj] ᨩ᩠ᨿᨦᩁᩣ᩠ᨿ เจียงฮาย | Chiang Rai city andprovince | cf.Tai Lü:ᦵᦈᧂᦣᦻ [tsêŋ hâːj] "Chiang Rai" |
| [kʰít] คิด | [kɯ́t] ᨣᩧ᩠ᨯ กึ๊ด | think | cf.Tai Lü:ᦅᦹᧆ [kɯ̄t] "to think" |
| [tɕʰɔ́ːn] ช้อน | [tɕɔ́ːn] ᨩᩬ᩶ᩁ จ๊อน | spoon | cf.Tai Lü:ᦋᦸᧃᧉ [tsɔ̀n] "spoon" |
| [tɕʰáj] ใช้ | [tɕáj] ᨩᩲ᩶ ใจ๊ | use | cf.Shan:ၸႂ်ႉ [tsa̰ɰ] "to use",Tai Lü:ᦺᦋᧉ [tsàj] "to use" |
| [pʰɔ̂ː] พ่อ | [pɔ̂ː] ᨻᩬᩴ᩵ ป้อ | father | cf.Shan:ပေႃႈ [pɔ̄] "father",Tai Lü:ᦗᦸᧈ [pɔ̄] "father" |
| [tʰāːŋ] ทาง | [tāːŋ] ᨴᩤ᩠ᨦ ตาง | way | cf.Shan:တၢင်း [táːŋ] "way",Tai Lü:ᦑᦱᧂ [tâːŋ] "way" |
But not:
| Standard Thai | Northern Thai | gloss | note |
|---|---|---|---|
| [kʰôːt.sā.nāː] โฆษณา | [kʰôːt.sā.nāː] ᨥᩰᩇᨱᩣ โฆษณา | commercial, advertisement | cf.Tai Lü:ᦷᦆᦉᦓᦱ [xôː.sā.nâː] "advertisement" |
| [pʰāː.sǎː] ภาษา | [pʰāː.sǎː] ᨽᩣᩈᩣ ภาษา | language | cf.Tai Lü:ᦘᦱᦉᦱ [pʰâː.sáː] "nationality" |
| [wát.tʰā.ná(ʔ).tʰām] วัฒนธรรม | [wa᷇t.tʰā.na᷇(ʔ).tʰām] ᩅᨯ᩠ᨰᨶᨵᨾ᩠ᨾ᩺ วัฒนธัมม์ | culture | cf.Tai Lü:ᦞᧆᦒᦓᦱᦒᧄ [wāt.tʰā.nā(ʔ).tʰâm] "culture" |
| [tʰām] ธรรม | [tʰām] ᨵᨾ᩠ᨾ᩺ ธัมม์ | Dharma | cf.Tai Lü:ᦒᧄ [tʰâm] "Dharma" |
Though a number of aspirated consonants in Standard Thai often correspond to unaspirated sounds in Northern Thai, when an unaspirated consonant is followed by ร (/r/) the unaspirated consonant becomes aspirated:
| Standard Thai | Northern Thai | gloss | note |
|---|---|---|---|
| [prā.tʰêːt] ประเทศ | [pʰā.têːt] ᨷᩕᨴᩮ᩠ᩆ ผะเต้ศ | country | cf.Tai Lü:ᦕᦵᦑᧆ [pʰā.te᷄ːt] "country" |
| [kràːp] กราบ | [kʰàːp] ᨠᩕᩣ᩠ᨷ ขาบ | kowtow, prostrate | cf.Tai Lü:ᦃᦱᧇ [xa᷄ːp] "to prostrate oneself" |
| [prāː.sàːt] ปราสาท | [pʰǎː.sàːt] ᨷᩕᩤᩈᩣ᩠ᨴ ผาสาท | palace | cf.Tai Lü:ᦕᦱᦉᦱᧆ [pʰáː.sa᷄ːt] "palace" |
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Authority control databases: National |
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