| North Halmahera | |
|---|---|
| Halmaheran | |
| Geographic distribution | Maluku Islands,Indonesia |
| Linguistic classification | West Papuan or independentlanguage family |
| Language codes | |
| Glottolog | nort2923 |
 Map of the North Halmahera languages; | |
TheNorth Halmahera (NH) languages are a family of languages spoken in the northern and eastern parts of the island ofHalmahera and some neighboring islands inIndonesia. The southwestern part of the island is occupied by the unrelatedSouth Halmahera languages, which are a subgroup ofAustronesian. They may be most closely related to the languages of theBird's Head region ofWest Papua, but this is not well-established.[1]
The best known North Halmaheran language isTernate (50,000 native speakers), which is a regionallingua franca and which, along withTidore, were the languages of the rival medievalTernate andTidore sultanates, famous for their role in thespice trade.
Most of these languages are very closely related to each other, and their family status is well-demonstrated.West Makian stands out as an isolate.[2][3] Their external links remain unclear. While genealogically distinct from mostlanguages of Indonesia, they all show evidence of extensive contact with the dominant Austronesian language family.[4]
Some of the North Halmahera languages are characterized by their elaborate morphological structures.[4] Others exhibit deep external influence, having shifted to a more Austronesian-type grammar as a consequence of prolonged contact.[5][6]
Spoken in theMaluku Islands, the North Halmahera languages are some of the westernmostPapuan languages (the only other such outlier family in eastern Indonesia beingTimor–Alor–Pantar).[7][8] Located withinSoutheast Asia, the two families are arguably the only non-Melanesian linguistic groups that can be linked to the Papuan families ofOceania.[9]: 151 The languages are thought to have been brought to the region as a result of migration fromNew Guinea, likely predating the arrival of Austronesian languages.[2]: 136 [3]: 216
These languages are classified by some to be part of a largerWest Papuan family, along with the languages of theBird's Head region ofWestern New Guinea,[2] while others consider NH to form a distinct language family, with no demonstrable relationship outside the region.[10]: 269 The languages of North Halmahera appear to have the closest affinity with the languages of the Bird's Head, which suggests a migration from the western Bird's Head to northern Halmahera.[11]: 364 However,Ger Reesink notes that the evidence forgenetic relatedness between the different "West Papuan" groupings is too skimpy to form a firm conclusion,[1] suggesting that they be considered anareal network of unrelated linguistic families.Moreover, many speakers of NH languages, such as theTernate,Tidore, andGalela [ru] peoples, are physically distinct fromNew Guineans, while Papuan traits are more prevalent among theAustronesian-speaking peoples of South Halmahera.[12]Robert Blust (2013) considers this paradox to be a result of historicallanguage replacement.[12] The ethnic groups of the north Halmahera area share civilizational links with the Islamic world and the populations of western Indonesia, betraying a mismatch between cultural and linguistic affiliation.[2]
At the turn of the 19th century, the NH languages had already been recognized as a highly divergent (but perhaps Austronesian) group. Their non-Austronesian character was finally demonstrated byHendrik van der Veen in 1915.[6]: 190 The structural similarities between NH and certain Papuan families in Melanesia were noted as far back as 1900, and an early version of the West Papuan family was proposed by H.K.J. Cowan (1957–1965), linking NH with the Bird's Head languages, among others (based on lexical and morphemic evidence).[6]: 193 Holton and Klamer (2018: 626) do not unequivocally accept the genealogical unity of West Papuan, but note that the more restricted "West Papuan" proposal, linking NH withWest Bird's Head in particular (and also theYapen/Yawa languages), appears to be particularly convincing.[4]
The family has a demonstrable Austronesianstratum,[13]: 41 with the ancestral language having received lexical influence from an unnamedPhilippine language (or languages).[5]: 652 There are also borrowings of probableCentral Maluku origin, as well asOceanic ones;[6]: 195 in particular, Voorhoeve (1982) has noted a set of lexical similarities between NH and the Central Papuan languages of the south coast ofPapua New Guinea.[3][14] In addition, Ternate, Tidore,West Makian, andSahu have adopted many elements of Austronesian grammar;[2][3] however, other languages of the family are rather conservative, having preserved theSOV word order, the use ofpostpositions, as well as the use of object and subject prefixes.[5][6]: 192 The presence of archaic typological features sharply distinguishes these languages from other West Papuan languages, which generally have a left-headed syntactic structure.[11]: 364
The family is dialectally heterogeneous, with blurry lines between different languages. While different authors tend to disagree on the number of distinct languages identified,[15] there is general accord regarding the internal subgrouping of the family.[4]: 577
The classification used here is that of Voorhoeve 1988.[6]
West Makian is divergent due to heavy Austronesian influence. It was once classified as anAustronesian language.[16] It should be distinguished fromEast Makian (Taba), an unrelated Austronesian language.[4]: 577
There is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the Galela–Tobelo languages, and Voorhoeve 1988 considered them dialects of a language he calledNortheast Halmaheran, though most speakers consider them to be distinct languages. They are probably best considered separate languages, as mutual intelligibility testing appears to be skewed by the cultural practice of multilingualism.[17]
Ternate and Tidore are generally treated as separate languages, though there is littleAbstand involved, and the separation appears to be based on sociopolitical grounds.[15] Voorhoeve groups these idioms together as varieties of a unitary "Ternate-Tidore" language, while Miriam van Staden classifies them as distinct languages.[4]: 577 Other North Halmahera languages, such as Galela and Tobelo, have received significant influence from Ternate, a historical legacy of the dominance of theTernate Sultanate in theMoluccas.[18] Many Ternate loanwords can be found in Sahu.[4]
Proto-North Halmahera consonants are (after Voorhoeve 1994: 68, cited in Holton and Klamer 2018: 584):[4]
| Labial | Dental | Velar | Guttural | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plain | Retroflex | |||||
| Plosive | Unvoiced | p | t | k | q | |
| Voiced | b | d | ɖ <ḋ> | g | ||
| Fricative | f | s | h | |||
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | |||
| Approximant | w | l (r) | ||||
Proto-North Halmahera is notable for having thevoiced retroflex stop *ɖ, asretroflex consonants are often not found inPapuan languages.
The following proto-North Halmahera reconstructions are listed in Holton and Klamer (2018: 620–621).[4] Most of the forms in Holton and Klamer are derived from Wada (1980).[19]
| gloss | proto-North Halmahera |
|---|---|
| ‘back’ | *ḋuḋun |
| ‘bad’ | *torou |
| ‘bark’ | *kahi |
| ‘big’ | *lamok |
| ‘bite’ | *goli |
| ‘black’ | *tarom |
| ‘blood’ | *aun |
| ‘blow’ | *hoa |
| ‘blue’ | *bisi |
| ‘boil’ | *sakahi |
| ‘bone’ | *koboŋ |
| ‘brother’ | *hiraŋ |
| ‘burn’ | *so(ŋa)ra |
| ‘child’ | *ŋopak |
| ‘cloud’ | *lobi |
| ‘cold’ (1) | *alo |
| ‘cold’ (2) | *malat |
| ‘come’ | *bola |
| ‘count’ | *etoŋ |
| ‘cry’ | *ores |
| ‘cut’ | *luit |
| ‘dance’ | *selo |
| ‘die’ | *soneŋ |
| ‘dig’ | *puait |
| ‘dirty’ | *pepeke |
| ‘dog’ | *kaso |
| ‘dull’ | *boŋo |
| ‘ear’ | *ŋauk |
| ‘earth’ | *tonak |
| ‘eat’ | *oḋom |
| ‘egg’ | *boro |
| ‘eight’ | *tupaaŋe |
| ‘eye’ | *lako |
| ‘fall’ | *ḋota |
| ‘far’ | *kurut |
| ‘fat, grease’ | *saki |
| ‘father’ | *baba |
| ‘fear’ | *moḋoŋ |
| ‘feather’ | *gogo |
| ‘female’ | *ŋopeḋeka |
| ‘few’ | *ucu |
| ‘fight’ | *kuḋubu |
| ‘fire’ | *uku |
| ‘fish’ | *nawok |
| ‘five’ | *motoha |
| ‘float’ | *bawo |
| ‘flow’ | *uhis |
| ‘flower’ | *leru |
| ‘fly’ | *sosor |
| ‘fog’ | *rasa |
| ‘four’ | *ihat |
| ‘fruit’ | *sopok |
| ‘give’ | *hike |
| ‘good’ | *loha |
| ‘grass’ | *ŋaŋaru |
| ‘green’ | *ijo |
| ‘guts’ | *toto |
| ‘hair’ | *hutu |
| ‘hand’ | *giam |
| ‘head’ | *sahek |
| ‘hear’ | *isen |
| ‘heart’ | *siniŋa |
| ‘heavy’ | *tubuso |
| ‘hit’ | *ŋapo |
| ‘horn’ | *taḋu |
| ‘hot’ | *sahuk |
| ‘husband’ | *rokat |
| ‘kill’ | *tooma |
| ‘knee’ | *puku |
| ‘know’ | *nako |
| ‘lake’ | *talaga |
| ‘laugh’ | *ḋohe |
| ‘leaf’ | *soka |
| ‘left’ | *gubali |
| ‘leg/foot’ | *ḋohu |
| ‘lie’ | *ḋaḋu |
| ‘live’ | *oho |
| ‘liver’ | *gate |
| ‘long’ (1) | *kurut |
| ‘long’ (2) | *teka |
| ‘louse/flea’ | *gani |
| ‘male’ | *naur |
| ‘many’ | *ḋala |
| ‘meat’ | *lake |
| ‘moon’ | *ŋoosa |
| ‘mother’ | *awa |
| ‘mountain’ | *tala |
| ‘mouth’ | *uru |
| ‘nail’ | *gitipir |
| ‘name’ | *roŋa |
| ‘narrow’ | *peneto |
| ‘near’ | *ḋumu |
| ‘neck’ | *toko |
| ‘new’ | *momuane |
| ‘night’ | *putu |
| ‘nine’ | *siwo |
| ‘nose’ | *ŋunuŋ |
| ‘old’ | *ŋowo |
| ‘one’ | *moi |
| ‘person’ | *ɲawa |
| ‘pierce’ | *topok |
| ‘pull’ | *lia |
| ‘push’ | *hito(si) |
| ‘rain’ | *muura |
| ‘red’ | *sawala |
| ‘right’ | *girinak |
| ‘river’ | *selera |
| ‘roast’ | *tupu |
| ‘root’ | *ŋutuk |
| ‘rope’ | *gumin |
| ‘rotten’ | *baka |
| ‘round’ | *pululun |
| ‘rub’ | *ese |
| ‘salt’ | *gasi |
| ‘sand’ | *ḋowoŋi |
| ‘say’ | *temo |
| ‘scratch’ | *rago |
| ‘sea’ | *ŋolot |
| ‘see’ | *kelelo |
| ‘seed’ | *gisisi |
| ‘seven’ | *tumuḋiŋi |
| ‘sew’ | *urit |
| ‘sharp’ | *ḋoto |
| ‘shoot’ | *ḋupu |
| ‘short’ | *timisi |
| ‘sing’ | *ɲaɲi |
| ‘sister’ | *biraŋ |
| ‘sit’ | *tamie |
| ‘six’ | *butaŋa |
| ‘skin’ | *kahi |
| ‘sky’ | *ḋipaŋ |
| ‘sleep’ | *kiolok |
| ‘small’ | *ece |
| ‘smell’ | *hame |
| ‘smoke’ | *ḋopo |
| ‘smooth’ | *maahi |
| ‘snake’ | *ŋihia |
| ‘speak’ | *bicara |
| ‘spear’ | *kamanu |
| ‘spit’ | *hobir |
| ‘split’ | *raca |
| ‘stand’ | *oko |
| ‘star’ | *ŋoma |
| ‘stone’ | *teto |
| ‘straight’ | *bolowo |
| ‘suck’ | *suyu |
| ‘swell’ | *ḋobo |
| ‘swim’ | *toboŋ |
| ‘tail’ | *pego |
| ‘take, hold’ | *aho |
| ‘ten’ | *mogiowok |
| ‘thick’ | *kipirin |
| ‘thin’ | *hina |
| ‘think’ | *fikiri < Arabic[clarification needed] |
| ‘three’ | *saaŋe |
| ‘throw’ | *sariwi |
| ‘tie’ | *piriku |
| ‘to dry’ | *ḋuḋuŋ |
| ‘tongue’ | *akir |
| ‘tooth’ | *iŋir |
| ‘tree’ | *gota |
| ‘true’ | *tero |
| ‘twenty’ | *monohalok |
| ‘two’ | *sinoto |
| ‘vomit’ | *ŋunaŋ |
| ‘walk’ | *tagi |
| ‘warm’ | *sakuk |
| ‘wash’ | *boka |
| ‘water’ | *aker |
| ‘way’ | *ŋekom |
| ‘wet’ | *pesa |
| ‘white’ | *ares |
| ‘wide’ | *ŋohat |
| ‘wife’ | *peḋakat |
| ‘wind’ | *paro |
| ‘wing’ | *golipupu |
| ‘wipe’ | *piki |
| ‘woods’ | *poŋan |
| ‘worm’ | *kalubati |
| ‘young’ | *kiau |
The following basic vocabulary words are from the Trans-New Guinea database.[20] The words cited constitute translation equivalents, whether they are cognate (e.g.utu,hutu for “hair”) or not (e.g.dofolo,apota for “head”).
| gloss | Sahu[21] | Tidore[22] | West Makian[23] |
|---|---|---|---|
| head | sae'e | dofolo | apota; tabia |
| hair | utu | hutu | gigo; onga |
| ear | kocowo'o; ngau'u; 'oki; sidete | ngau | kameu |
| eye | la'o | lao | afe; sado |
| nose | cu'dumu; ngunungu; payáha | ngun | mudefete |
| tooth | ngi'di | ing | wi |
| tongue | yai'i | aki | belo |
| leg | tarotaro | ||
| louse | gane | gan | bene |
| dog | nunu'u | kaso | aso |
| bird | namo | namo | haywan |
| egg | gosi; tounu | gosi | esi |
| blood | ngaunu | au | uni |
| bone | 'bero; 'obongo | goka | subebi |
| skin | eno'o | ahi | fi |
| breast | susu | isu | susu |
| man | nau'u | nau-nau | at |
| woman | weré'a | faya | papa; songa |
| sky | diwanga | sorga | tupam |
| moon | ngara | ora | odo |
| water | 'banyo | ake | be |
| fire | ci'du; naoto; u'u | uku | ipi |
| stone | ma'di | mafu | may |
| road, path | ngo'omo; tapaka | linga | gopao |
| name | lomanga | ronga | aym |
| eat | 'doroga; kou; oromo; tabu | oyo; talesa | am; fajow; fiam |
| one | maténgo; moi | rimoi | gominye; maminye; meminye; minye |
| two | 'di'di; romo'dí'di | malofo | dimaede; edeng; je; maedeng; medeng |
