| North Ambrym | |
|---|---|
| Native to | Vanuatu |
| Region | Ambrym Island |
Native speakers | 5,300 (2001)[1] |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | mmg |
| Glottolog | nort2839 |
| ELP | North Ambrym |
 North Ambrym is not endangered according to the classification system of theUNESCOAtlas of the World's Languages in Danger | |
North Ambrym is a language ofAmbrym Island, Vanuatu.
Today there are two maindialects of North Ambrym, levelled from a previous five or six due to population movements towards the coast. The Western dialect (spoken in Lonhali district) is better documented than the North-Eastern dialect (spoken in Wowan district).[2]
| Bilabial | Labio- dental | Alveolar | Post-alv./ Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | lab. | pal. | plain | lab. | pal. | plain | pal. | |||||
| Plosive | b | bʷ | bʲ | t | k | |||||||
| Affricate | tʃ | |||||||||||
| Nasal | m | mʷ | n | nʲ | ŋ | |||||||
| Rhotic | trill | r | ||||||||||
| tap | ɾ | |||||||||||
| Fricative | β | βʲ | f | fʷ | fʲ | s | ɣ | h | ||||
| Approximant | w | l | j | |||||||||
| Front | Back | |
|---|---|---|
| Close | i | u |
| Near-close | ʊ | |
| Mid | e | o |
| Near-open | æ | |
| Open | a |
There are two classes ofnouns – free nouns that occur independently or bound nouns that require a possessor, either a pronominalsuffix or a possessornoun phrase. Some nouns alternate between free and bound classes.[2]
Nouns can also be derived from verbs using twoclitics: instruments are derived witha= and abstract nouns are derived with=an.[2]
Free pronouns distinguish between singular, dual,paucal, and plural numbers, and distinguishinclusive and exclusive first person.[2]
| Singular | Dual | Paucal | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person | inclusive | ni | kerong | kesul, kensul | ken |
| exclusive | gemaro | gemasul | gema | ||
| 2nd person | neng | gomoro | gomosul | gimi | |
| 3rd person | nge | nyero | nyesul | nyer | |
Non-singular third-person pronouns can be used to quantify nominals, and paucal and plural third-person pronouns can be used to quantify over proper names, signifying a group containing that person.[2]
Nominal modifiers (such asadjectives, possessor nominals,quantifiers,numerals, andrelative clauses) generally follow the head nominal. There are fourdeicticdemonstratives (two proximal, one medial, and one distal) which must be introduced by either the subordinate clause markerge or the topic markernge. The numeralhu 'one' can appear directly after the head nominal to indicate a specific indefinite, and non-specific indefinites are marked withte hu and only occur in negative or irrealis clauses.Te hu can also function as a pronominal meaning 'no one'.[2]
Noun phrases can be coordinated with the verbkirine 'be with' or the third person dual free pronounnyero, or with disjunctiveo which is also used to coordinate clauses.[2]
The verbal complex can contain the following elements, with optional elements in brackets:[2]
| (potential) | subject indexing particle | (tense/mood/negation) | (aspect) | verb | (compound) | (-valence increasing suffix) |
|---|
In addition the subject indexing particle can taketense prefixes and tense or mood suffixes.[2]
Verbs can be transitive or intransitive.
Dynamic intransitive verbs can take preposition phrases asoblique arguments and a subset can have their valency changed by the applicative suffixCi-.Stative/inchoative intransitive verbs select apatient subject, and are interpreted as stative or inchoative depending on theaspect marking. When marked with the non-recent past tense marker, these are interpreted as perfective stative verbs, while the recent past marker is interpreted as imperfective and inchoative. A subset of stative/inchoative verbs can be transitivised with the transitive suffix-ne, which also makes the subject the agent.m-initial stative/inchoative verbs begin with /m/ and are derived from theProto-Oceanic stative verb prefix*ma-, though only one has a non-stative equivalent remaining.[2]
While there is a small group of morphologically simple transitive verbs, a large group are derived from semitransitive verbs with the transitive suffix-ne. Semitransitive verbs have a transitive meaning and a derived transitive form but only allow restricted objects.[2]
Non-verbalpredicates are also possible intopic-comment constructions, and have to include the topic markernge.[2]
In North Ambrym there are two main possessive constructions – direct and indirect possession. Direct possession patterns predominantly withinalienable possession where the relationship between possessor and possessed is more permanent, such as kinship terms, body parts and parts of wholes. Indirect possession patterns predominantly withalienable possession where the relationship between possessor and possessed is less permanent, and more easily removed from the possessor.
Direct possessive constructions are so called as a pronominal possessor can be directly suffixed to the possessed noun:[2]:219
When the possessor is a personal noun, such as a proper name, the possessor is juxtaposed to the directly possessed noun:[2]:219
rahe
mother
John
john
rahe John
mother john
‘John’s mother’
When the possessor is a common noun, the possessed noun is suffixed by a linking morpheme known as a construct suffix, which is then followed by the possessor noun:[3]:102
Direct possessive constructions cover the following semantic relationships:[2]:225-231
In indirect possessive constructions a pronominal possessor is not able to suffix directly to the possessed noun, but instead attaches to one of a set of possessive classifiers:[2]:232
When the possessor is a lexical noun phrase, there is a word order change, with the possessed noun occurring before the possessive classifier. When the possessor is a personal noun, such as a proper name, the possessor phrase follows the possessive classifier, with no intervening morphology:[2]:232
When the possessor is a common noun, the possessive classifier noun is suffixed by the linking construct suffix, which is then followed by the possessor noun:[3]:96
There are five different possessive classifiers in North Ambrym that are used with different types of possessions:[2]:239-243;[4]:97
Overlap or fluidity is when a possessed noun can occur in different possessive constructions.[5][6] In many Oceanic languages, nouns that are directly possessed can be indirectly possessed, and nouns that are indirectly possessed by one classifier can occur with different classifiers, depending upon the interaction between the possessor and possessed.[6] However, in North Ambrym, directly possessed nouns are unable to occur in indirect possessive constructions. Furthermore, there is a lack of overlap or fluidity between nouns that occur in indirect possession.[4][7] For example, the nounwe ‘water’ only occurs with the classifier for liquids,mwe-/ma-, and never with the general or residual classifier,mwene-/mwena-:[4]:95
Grammatical:
Ungrammatical:
This more rigid collocation between noun and classifier has been described as non-canonical grammatical gender, as rigid assignment between a noun and a gender marker is a feature of grammatical gender rather than of classifiers.[7] The North Ambrym classifier system is a potential emergent stage towards thedevelopment of a grammatical gender system.
CST:construct suffix