InEngland, theHigh Middle Ages spanned the period from theNorman Conquest in 1066 to the death ofKing John, considered by some historians to be the lastAngevin king of England, in 1216. A disputed succession and victory at theBattle of Hastings led to the conquest of England byWilliam of Normandy in 1066. This linked theKingdom of England with Norman possessions in theKingdom of France and brought a new aristocracy to the country that dominated landholding, government and the church. They brought with them the French language and maintained their rule through a system of castles and the introduction of afeudal system of landholding. By the time of William's death in 1087, England formed the largest part of anAnglo-Norman empire. William's sons disputed succession to his lands, withWilliam II emerging as ruler of England. On his death in 1100 his younger brother claimed the throne asHenry I and defeated his brotherRobert to reunite England and Normandy. Henry was a ruthless yet effective king, but afterthe death of his only male heirWilliam Adelin, he persuaded his barons to recognise his daughterMatilda as heir. When Henry died in 1135 her cousinStephen of Blois had himself proclaimed king, leading to a civil war known asThe Anarchy. Eventually Stephen recognised Matilda's sonHenry as his heir and when Stephen died in 1154, he succeeded as Henry II.

Henry had extensive holdings in France and asserted his authority over Wales, Scotland and Ireland. He clashed with his appointee to theArchbishopric of Canterbury,Thomas Becket, resulting in Becket's murder. The later part of his reign was dominated by rebellions involving his sons andPhilip II of France that forced him to accept his sonRichard as sole heir. Richard acceded to the Angevin inheritance on Henry's death in 1189 and almost immediately departed on aCrusade. On his return he was taken hostage in Germany and a huge ransom was paid in order to secure his release in 1194. He spent the remainder of his reign restoring his French lands, dying in 1199. His younger brother John succeeded in England and fought a successful war against Richard's nephewArthur for control of the French domains. John's behaviour led to rebellions by the Norman and Angevin barons that dwindled his control of the continental possessions. His attempt to retake Normandy and Anjou failed at theBattle of Bouvines. This weakened his position in England, eventually resulting in the treaty calledMagna Carta, which limited royal power, and theFirst Barons' War. His death in 1216 is considered by some historians to mark the end of the Angevin period and the beginning of thePlantagenet dynasty.

The Normans adopted manyAnglo-Saxon governmental institutions, but the feudal system concentrated more power in the hands of the monarch and a small elite. The rights and roles of women became more sharply defined. Noblewomen remained significant cultural and religious patrons and played an important part in political and military events. During the twelfth century divisions between conquerors and the English began to dissolve and they began to consider themselves superior to their Celtic neighbours. The conquest brought Norman and French churchmen to power. New reformed religious and military orders were introduced into England. By the early thirteenth century the church had largely won its argument for independence from the state, answering almost entirely to Rome.Pilgrimages were a popular religious practice and accumulatingrelics became important for ambitious institutions. England played a prominent role in theSecond,Third andFifth Crusades.

Between the ninth and thirteenth centuries England experienced theMedieval Warm Period, a prolonged period of warmer temperatures that allowed poorer land to be brought into cultivation. Agricultural land became typically organised aroundmanors. By the eleventh century, amarket economy was flourishing across much of England, while the eastern and southern towns were heavily involved in international trade. Many hundreds of new towns, some of themplanned communities, were built, supporting the creation ofguilds andcharter fairs. Anglo-Norman warfare was characterised byattritional military campaigns of raids and seizure of castles. Naval forces enabled the transportation of troops and supplies, raids into hostile territory and attacks on enemy fleets. After the conquest the Normans built timbermotte and bailey andringwork castles in large numbers, which were replaced by stone buildings from the twelfth century. The period has been used in a wide range of popular culture, includingWilliam Shakespeare's plays.

In 1002 KingÆthelred II of England marriedEmma, the sister ofRichard II, Duke of Normandy.^[1] Their sonEdward the Confessor, who spent many years in exile inNormandy, succeeded to the English throne in 1042.^[2] This led to the establishment of a powerful Norman interest in English politics, as Edward drew heavily on his former hosts for support, bringing in Norman courtiers, soldiers, and clerics and appointing them to positions of power, particularly in the Church. Childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidableGodwin, Earl of Wessex, and his sons, Edward may also have encouragedDuke William of Normandy's ambitions for the English throne.^[3]

When King Edward died at the beginning of 1066, the lack of a clear heir led to a disputed succession in which several contenders laid claim to the throne of England.^[4] Edward's immediate successor was theEarl of Wessex, Harold Godwinson, the richest and most powerful of the English aristocrats. Harold was elected king by theWitenagemot of England and crowned bythe Archbishop of York, Ealdred, although Norman propaganda claimed the ceremony was performed byStigand, theuncanonically electedArchbishop of Canterbury.^[5] Harold was immediately challenged by two powerful neighbouring rulers. Duke William claimed that he had been promised the throne by King Edward and that Harold had sworn agreement to this^[6] King Harald III of Norway, commonly known as Harald Hardrada, also contested the succession. His claim to the throne was based on an agreement between his predecessorMagnus I of Norway and the earlier English king,Harthacnut, whereby if either died without heir, the other would inherit both England and Norway.^[7] William and Harald at once set about assembling troops and ships to invade England.^[8]Tostig Godwinson, brother of Harold, made a series of attacks in the north of England in early 1066 that may have been the beginning of a bid for the throne, but after defeat at the hands ofEdwin andMorcar and the desertion of most of his followers he threw his lot in with Harald Hardrada, who invaded northern England in early September.^[9] Harold defeated and killed Hardrada and Tostig at thebattle of Stamford Bridge.^[10] William invaded with an army ofNorman followers and mercenaries. Harold marched south to meet him, but was defeated and killed at thebattle of Hastings on 14 October and William's forces rapidly occupied the south of England.^[11]

Major revolts followed, which William suppressed before intervening in the north-east of England, establishing Norman control of York anddevastating the region.^[13] Once England had been conquered, the Normans faced many challenges in maintaining control.^[14] They were few in number compared to the native English population; including those from other parts of France, historians estimate the number of Norman settlers at around 8,000.^[15] William's followers expected and received lands and titles in return for their service in the invasion,^[16] but William claimed ultimate possession of the land in England over which his armies had given himde facto control, and asserted the right to dispose of it as he saw fit.^[17] Henceforth, all land was "held" directly from the king infeudal tenure in return for military service.^[18] A Norman lord typically had properties located in a piecemeal fashion throughout England and Normandy, and not in a single geographic block.^[19]

To find the lands to compensate his Norman followers, William initially confiscated the estates of all the English lords who had fought and died with Harold and redistributed part of their lands.<ref^[20] These confiscations led to revolts, which resulted in more confiscations, a cycle that continued for five years after the Battle of Hastings. To put down and prevent further rebellions the Normans constructed castles and fortifications in unprecedented numbers,^[21] initially mostly on themotte-and-bailey pattern.^[22] William distributed lands to the Church and appointed loyal Normans as bishops; he and his barons also exercised tighter control over inheritance of property by widows and daughters, often forcing marriages to Normans.^[23] Some Norman lords used England as a launching point for attacks intoSouth andNorth Wales,spreading up the valleys to create newMarcher territories.^[24] By the time of William's death in 1087, England formed the largest part of an Anglo-Norman empire, ruled over by a network of nobles with landholdings across England, Normandy, and Wales.^[25] England's growing wealth was critical in allowing the Norman kings to project power across the region, including funding campaigns along the frontiers of Normandy.^[26]

At Christmas 1085, William ordered the compilation of a survey of the landholdings held by himself and by his vassals throughout the kingdom, organised by counties, a work now known as theDomesday Book. The listing for each county gives the holdings of each landholder, grouped by owners. The listings describe the holding, who owned the land before the Conquest, its value, what the tax assessment was, and usually the number of peasants, ploughs, and any other resources the holding had. Towns were listed separately. All the English counties south of the River Tees andRiver Ribble are included, and the whole work seems to have been mostly completed by 1 August 1086, when theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle records that William received the results and that all the chief magnates swore theSalisbury Oath, a renewal of their oaths of allegiance.^[27]

At the death of William the Conqueror in 1087 his lands were divided into two parts. His Norman lands went to the eldest sonRobert Curthose and his English lands to the younger William Rufus. This presented a dilemma for those nobles who held land on both sides of the waterway of the English Channel, who decided to unite England and Normandy once more under a singular ruler. The pursuit of this aim led them to revolt against William in favour of Robert in theRebellion of 1088, under the leadership of the powerful BishopOdo of Bayeux, who was a half-brother of William the Conqueror.^[28] As Robert failed to appear in England to rally his supporters, William won the support of the English lords with silver and promises of better government, and defeated the rebellion. In 1091 he invaded Normandy, crushing Robert's forces and forcing him to cede a portion of his lands. The two made up their differences and William agreed to help Robert recover lands lost to the King of France, notablyLe Maine. This plan was later abandoned, but William continued to pursue a ferociously warlike defence of his French possessions and interests, exemplified by his response to the attempt byElias de la Flèche,Count of Maine, to takeLe Mans in 1099. William came into conflict withAnselm, Archbishop of Canterbury overGregorian reforms in the Church. Eventually Anselm went into exile andPope Urban II, involved in a major conflict with theHoly Roman EmperorHenry IV, came to aconcordat with William, whereby William recognised Urban as pope, and Urban gave sanction to the Anglo-Norman ecclesiasticalstatus quo. Anselm remained in exile, and William was able to claim the revenues of the archbishop of Canterbury to the end of his reign.^[29] William died while hunting in 1100.^[30]

Despite Robert's rival claims, his younger brother Henry immediately seized power in England.^[31] Robert, who invaded in 1101, disputed Henry's control of England. This military campaign ended in a negotiated settlement that confirmed Henry as king. The peace was short-lived, and Henry invaded the Duchy of Normandy in 1105 and 1106, finally defeating Robert at theBattle of Tinchebray. Henry kept Robert imprisoned for the rest of his life. Henry's control of Normandy was challenged byLouis VI of France,Baldwin of Flanders andFulk of Anjou, who promoted the rival claims of Robert's son,William Clito, and supported a major rebellion in the Duchy between 1116 and 1119. Following Henry's victory at theBattle of Brémule, a favourable peace settlement was agreed with Louis in 1120.^[32][33]

Considered by contemporaries to be a harsh but effective ruler, Henry skilfully manipulated the barons in England and Normandy. In England, he drew on the existing Anglo-Saxon system of justice, local government and taxation, but also strengthened it with additional institutions, including the royalexchequer and itinerantjustices.^[34] Normandy was also governed through a growing system of justices and an exchequer. Many of the officials that ran Henry's system were "new men", relatively low-born individuals who rose through the ranks as administrators.^[35] Henry encouragedecclesiastical reform,^[36] but from 1101 he also became embroiled in a serious dispute with Archbishop Anselm, which was resolved through a compromise solution in 1105.^[37] He supported theCluniac order and played a major role in the selection of the senior clergy in England and Normandy.^[38]

Henry's only legitimate son,William, died aboard theWhite Ship in the disaster of 1120, sparking a fresh succession crisis. Henry named his daughterMatilda as his heir,^[39] but on Henry's death in 1135 her cousinStephen of Blois had himself proclaimed king.^[40] Matilda's husbandGeoffrey, Count of Anjou showed little interest in England, but he supported Matilda by entering Normandy to claim her inheritance.^[41] Matilda landed in England to challenge Stephen and was declared "Lady of the English",^[42] which resulted in a civil war called the Anarchy. Stephen was defeated and captured at theBattle of Lincoln (1141) and Matilda was the effective ruler. When Matilda was forced to release Stephen in a hostage exchange for her half-brotherRobert, 1st Earl of Gloucester, Stephen was re-crowned. The conflict in England continued inconclusively. However, Geoffrey secured theDuchy of Normandy. Matilda's son,Henry II, by his marriage toEleanor of Aquitaine had acquired theDuchy of Aquitaine and was now immensely rich. With skilful negotiation with the war-weary barons of England and King Stephen, he agreed to theTreaty of Wallingford and was recognised as Stephen's heir.^[43]

After Stephen's death in 1154 Henry succeeded as the first Angevin king of England, so-called because he was also theCount of Anjou in Northern France, adding it to his extensive holdings in Normandy and Aquitaine.^[44] England became a key part of a loose-knit assemblage of lands spread across Western Europe, later termed theAngevin Empire.^[44][45]

Henry asserted his authority over Brittany, even reorganising the Duchy into eight administrative districts and introducing Angevin legal reforms.^[46] He pursued an aggressive policy in Wales, reclaiming lands lost by Anglo-Norman princes and conducting four punitive campaigns against Welsh princes that resulted in their submission to his authority. This underlined his overlordship, but he did not attempt a direct conquest. When the Scottish kingWilliam the Lion joined the rebellion of Henry's sons and was captured, it allowed Henry to extract homage from the Scottish king under theTreaty of Falaise (1174), which he did not pursue directly, but which would provide a justification for later interventions in Scottish kingship.^[47]

In the mid-twelfth century Ireland was ruled by localkings, although their authority was more limited than their counterparts in the rest of western Europe.^[48] The deposedKing of Leinster,Diarmait Mac Murchada, turned to Henry for assistance in 1167; Henry allowed Diarmait to recruit mercenaries within his empire.^[49] Diarmait put together a force of Anglo-Norman and Flemish mercenaries drawn from theWelsh Marches, includingRichard de Clare, known as Strongbow.^[50] With his new supporters, he reclaimed Leinster but died shortly afterwards in 1171; de Clare then claimed Leinster for himself.^[51] Henry took this opportunity to intervene personally in Ireland, landing in October 1171.^[52] Henry's timing was influenced by several factors, including encouragement from Pope Alexander, who saw the opportunity to establish papal authority over theIrish church.^[53][54] Henry's intervention was initially successful, with both the Irish and Anglo-Normans in the south and east of Ireland accepting his rule.^[55] However, theTreaty of Windsor in 1175, under whichRory O'Connor would be recognised as theHigh King of Ireland, giving homage to Henry and maintaining stability on the ground on his behalf,^[56] meant that he had little direct control.^[56][57]

Henry saw an opportunity to re-establish what he saw as his rights over the Church in England by reasserting the privileges held by Henry I whenTheobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, died, by appointing his friend,Thomas Becket to the post. Henry had clashed with the church over whether bishops could excommunicate royal officials without his permission and whether he could try clerics without them appealing to Rome. However, Becket opposed Henry'sConstitutions of Clarendon and fled into exile. Relations later improved, allowing Becket's return, but soon soured again when Becket saw the crowning ascoregent of Henry's son by theArchbishop of York as a challenge to his authority and excommunicated those who had offended him. On hearing the news Henry uttered the infamous phrase "what miserable drones and traitors have I nurtured and promoted in my household who let their lord be treated with such shameful contempt by a low born clerk".^[58] In response to please Henry three of his men murdered Becket inCanterbury Cathedral, probably by misadventure after Becket resisted a botched arrest attempt.^[59] In Christian Europe Henry was considered complicit in this crime, making him a pariah, and he was forced to make a dramatic exhibition of penance, publicly walking barefoot into the cathedral and allowing monks to scourge him.

When Henry II attempted to give his land-less youngest son, John, a wedding gift of three castles it prompted his three eldest sons and wife to rebel in therevolt of 1173–1174.Louis VII encouraged the three elder sons to destabilise his mightiest subject and not to wait for their inheritances. It was only after eighteen months of conflict that Henry II was able to force the rebels to submit to his authority.^[60] In Le Mans in 1182 Henry II gathered his children to plan forpartible inheritance in which his eldest son, also called Henry, would inherit England, Normandy and Anjou;Richard the Duchy of Aquitaine;Geoffrey Brittany and John would receive Ireland. This broke down into further conflict andthe younger Henry rebelled again, but died ofdysentery. In 1186 Geoffrey died as a result of a tournament accident but Henry was still reluctant to have a sole heir^[61] so, in 1189, Richard andPhilip II of France took advantage of a sickening Henry II with more success. Henry II was forced to accept humiliating peace terms, including naming Richard as sole heir. When Henry II died shortly afterwards his last words to Richard were allegedly "God grant that I may not die until I have my revenge on you".^[62]

On the day of Richard's coronation there was a mass slaughter of the Jews, described byRichard of Devizes as a "holocaust".^[63] Quickly putting the affairs of the Angevin Empire in order he departed on Crusade to the Middle East in early 1190. In Sicily he came into conflict withTancred I over the rights of Richard's sister QueenJoan, widow of the former kingWilliam II of Sicily. Richard captured the city ofMessina on 4 October 1190 and using it to force Tancred into a peace agreement.^[64] When his sister and his fiancéeBerengaria along with several other ships, including the treasure ship were seized by the island'sdespotIsaac Komnenos, Richard conquered the island, which became a western feudal and Christian base in the Mediterranean.^[65]

Opinions of Richard amongst his contemporaries were mixed. He had rejected and humiliated the king of France's sister; insulted and refused spoils of theThird Crusade to nobles likeLeopold V, Duke of Austria, and was rumoured to have arranged the assassination ofConrad of Montferrat. His cruelty was demonstrated by his massacre of 2,600 prisoners in Acre.^[66] However, Richard was respected for his military leadership and courtly manners. He achieved victories in theThird Crusade but failed to capture Jerusalem, retreating from the Holy Land with a small band of followers.^[67]

Richard was captured by Leopold on his return journey in 1192. Custody was passed toHenry the Lion and a tax of 25 per cent of movables and income was required in England to pay the ransom of 100,000 marks, with a promise of 50,000 more, before Richard was released in 1194. In his absence Philip II of France had overrun much of Normandy, whileJohn of England controlled much of the remainder of Richard's lands. On his return to England, Richard forgave John and re-established his control. Leaving England in 1194 never to return, Richard battled Phillip for the next five years for the return of the holdings seized during his incarceration. Close to total victory he was injured by an arrow during the siege ofChâteau de Châlus-Chabrol and died after lingering injured for ten days.^[68]

Richard's failure in his duty to provide an heir caused a succession crisis. Anjou, Brittany, Maine and Touraine chose Richard's nephew and nominated heir,Arthur, while John succeeded in England and Normandy. Yet again Philip II of France took the opportunity to destabilise the Plantagenet territories on the European mainland, supporting his vassal Arthur's claim to the English crown. When Arthur's forces threatened his mother, John won a significant victory, capturing the entire rebel leadership at theBattle of Mirebeau.^[69] Arthur was murdered, it was rumoured by John's own hands, and his sisterEleanor would spend the rest of her life in captivity. John's behaviour drove numerous French barons to side with Phillip. The resulting rebellions by the Norman and Angevin barons broke John's control of the continental possessions, leading to the de facto end of the Angevin Empire, even though Henry III would maintain the claim until 1259.^[70]

After re-establishing his authority in England, John planned to retake Normandy and Anjou. The strategy was to draw the French from Paris while another army, underOtto IV, Holy Roman Emperor, attacked from the north. However, his allies were defeated at theBattle of Bouvines in one of the most decisive and symbolic battles in French history.^[71] The battle had both important and high-profile consequences.^[72] John's nephew Otto retreated and was soon overthrown while King John agreed to a five-year truce. Philip's decisive victory was crucial in ordering politics in both England and France. The battle was instrumental in forming theabsolute monarchy in France.^[73]

John's defeats in France weakened his position in England. The rebellion of his English vassals resulted in the treaty calledMagna Carta, which limited royal power and establishedcommon law. This would form the basis of every constitutional battle through the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.^[74] However, both the barons and the crown failed to abide by the terms of Magna Carta, leading to theFirst Barons' War in which the rebel barons invited an invasion byPrince Louis. This is considered by some historians to mark the end of the Angevin period and the beginning of the Plantagenet dynasty with John's death and William Marshall's appointment as the protector of the nine-year-oldHenry III.^[75] Marshall won the war with victories at the battles ofLincoln andDover in 1217, leading to theTreaty of Lambeth by which Louis renounced his claims. .^[76] In victory, the Marshal Protectorate reissued Magna Carta as a basis for future government.^[77]

Within twenty years of the Norman conquest, the Anglo-Saxon elite had been replaced by a new class of Norman nobility.^[78][79][80] The newearls (successors to the ealdermen), sheriffs and senior clergy were all drawn from their ranks.^[81][82] In many areas of society there was continuity, as the Normans adopted many of the Anglo-Saxon governmental institutions, including the tax system, mints and the centralisation of law-making and some judicial matters; initially sheriffs and the hundred courts continued to function as before.^[83]

Anglo-Saxon society was based on close-knit farming communities that were jointly responsible for maintaining law and order in the village. Land ownership was the basis of social order. The population consisted of different social classes, from free peasants (theceorlas), who farmed their own land, to thethegns (nobles) and the royal elite. The ceorlas were free men who owned or rented land and managed their own farms. The land was divided into hides (hooves), agricultural units that served as a basis for taxation and recruitment. Every free man with land was obliged to pay taxes and perform military service. This was a more direct system than the Norman feudal system, where such duties were often passed down through a chain of vassals^[84]

After the conquest of England in 1066, the Normans brought with them a highly hierarchical and formalisedfeudal system that differed significantly from the Anglo-Saxon system. In the Norman feudal system, the king granted land (fiefs) to his vassals, who in turn passed on land to sub-vassals. The land was not regarded as personal property, but as a loan from the king or a higher feudal lord. In return, the vassals had to provide military services and fulfil other obligations to their feudal lord.^[85][86] In contrast to the Anglo-Saxons, who held slaves, the Normans rejected this practice as backward and contrary to the teachings of the Church.^[87] The once free peasants, on the other hand, lost influence and power as the Normans linked land ownership more closely to the provision of labour services for the local lord. They fell down the economic hierarchy and increased the number of unfreeserfs orvilleins, who were forbidden to leave their estates or seek other employment.^[88]

Towards the end of Henry II's reign, the foundations of centralised power were so firmly established that they were not seriously threatened or even shaken at any later point. The work of Henry II and his advisors proved decisive in the long term. The institutions of central government underwent significant improvements and the rulers found ways and means to extend the power of the Crown in the area of justice. By 1189, theCourt of Chancery and theCourt of Exchequer had acquired a clear identity and independent functions. The Court of Chancery was headed by the Lord Chancellor, who supervised the drafting and issuing of deeds, documents and diplomatic correspondence and authenticated them by affixing the royal seal. King John extended the royal role in delivering justice, and the extent of appropriate royal intervention was one of the issues addressed inMagna Carta of 1215.^[89]

The Court of Exchequer had become a regular, well-organised tressuary with a sophisticated and elaborate system of financial administration and audit. The most important of the procedures introduced by the Crown was that of the jury. The use of the sworn testimony of neighbouring residents was not new at this time, but had a long history. The king's itinerant judges were often commissioned to investigate all aspects of local administration of interest to the king, the behaviour of sheriffs and grievances of all kinds.

The ‘General Eyre’, as this type of enquiry was called, was an extremely difficult matter, and information on every detail was obtained from a sworn jury of hundreds, who had to answer under oath and under severe penalties any questions put to them by the judges. The recognitio or sworn interrogation became the government's regular method of obtaining information on almost any matter. In criminal law, the use of juries did not yet go beyond that of agrand jury (which was abolished for almost all purposes in 1933). Defendants were not interrogated by juries, but still by the old Anglo-Saxon method of ordeal, albeit now in the presence of the royal judges.

It was not until 1215 that the jury court made its appearance, after the Church had withdrawn its blessing from the trial by ordeal. It was the royal judges who, apparently without any special instruction from the government, finally came up with the idea that if facts could generally be established by the sworn testimony of twelve lawful men from the neighbourhood, the fact of guilt could also be established in the same way. These and other changes introduced under Henry II mark an important stage in the gradual process by which the administration of justice became the sole prerogative of the king, and the very origin of thecommon law.^[90][91]

Many tensions existed within the system of government.^[86]Royal landowning and wealth stretched across England, and placed the king in a privileged position above even the most powerful of the noble elite.^[92] Successive kings still needed more resources to pay for military campaigns, conduct building programmes, or to reward their followers, and this meant exercising their feudal rights to interfere in the land-holdings of nobles.^[93]This was contentious and a frequent issue of complaint, as there was a growing belief that land should be held by hereditary right, not through the favour of the king.^[94][93][95]

Property and wealth became increasingly focused in the hands of a subset of the nobility, the great magnates, at the expense of the wider baronage, encouraging the breakdown of some aspects of local feudalism.^[96][97]As time went by, the Norman nobility intermarried with many of the great Anglo-Saxon families, and the links with the Duchy began to weaken.^[98]By the late twelfth century, mobilising the English barons to fight on the continent was proving difficult, and John's attempts to do so ended in civil war.^[99][100]

In the High Middle Ages, England was organised into an administrative structure based on the old Anglo-Saxon administrative foundations, but further developed by the Norman Conquest in 1066 and the subsequent reforms. The country was divided intoshires, which were originally formed from smaller, regional tribes and territories and were given a fixed administrative structure over time. These shires formed the basis of local administration and had both administrative and judicial functions.

The shires were administered by asheriff (from the Old English Sċīrġerēfa or shire-reeve) who acted on behalf of the king. The sheriff had a central role in the administration and was responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining order, organising military service and carrying out royal orders. He was the most important royal official in the county and was appointed directly by the king. The sheriffs also contributed to the administration of justice by overseeing the conduct of court proceedings, particularly through the shire courts, which administered justice at a local level.

The shires were further subdivided into smaller administrative units called Hundreds (orWapentakes in the Danish-influenced regions). Each Hundred had its own court (Hundred Moot), which settled minor disputes and local matters. These courts were often presided over by local landowners or officials. In the northern and western parts of England, where the Norman administration met with greater resistance, the structures were more flexible and large parts were controlled by powerful barons or lords. In addition to the shires and hundreds, there were ecclesiastical territories such as bishoprics and abbeys, which often had their own administrative rights. Some areas were directly controlled by the church and were not necessarily subject to royal administration.

Alongside the shires and hundreds, theboroughs played an important role in the administration and organisation of England in the High Middle Ages. Boroughs were towns that enjoyed a special status due to their economic, strategic or political importance. They usually developed from older Anglo-Saxon settlements or fortified towns (burhs), which were originally founded by KingAlfred the Great in the 9th century as a defence against theVikings. In the High Middle Ages, these boroughs became urban centres with their own rights and privileges, which distinguished them from the surrounding rural areas.

Boroughs were usually more closely linked to the king than the surrounding rural areas and were often under the direct control of the crown. They often had the right to manage their own affairs, particularly in relation to trade, taxation and local jurisdiction. These rights were granted to them by royal charters. A borough could be administered by areeve (a local official, similar to the sheriff at shire level), but later many boroughs developed their own town councils or elected officials such as mayors and aldermen who took over the administration. In larger boroughs such as London or York, self-government was particularly pronounced^[101]

Medieval England was apatriarchal society and the lives of women were heavily influenced by contemporary beliefs about gender and authority.^[102] However, the position of women varied according to factors including their social class; whether they were unmarried, married, widowed or remarried; and in which part of the country they lived.^[103][104] Significant gender inequities persisted throughout the period, as women typically had more limited life-choices, access to employment and trade, and legal rights than men.^[105] After the Norman Conquest, the position of women in society changed. The rights and roles of women became more sharply defined, in part as a result of the development of the feudal system and the expansion of the English legal system; some women benefited from this, while others lost out.^[106][107] The rights of widows were formally laid down in law by the end of the twelfth century, clarifying the right of free women to own property, but this did not necessarily prevent women from beingforcibly remarried against their wishes.^[108]

The growth of governmental institutions under a succession of bishops reduced the role of queens and their households in formal government. Married or widowed noblewomen remained significant cultural and religious patrons and played an important part in political and military events, even if chroniclers were uncertain if this was appropriate behaviour.^[109][110] As in earlier centuries, most women worked in agriculture, but here roles became more clearly gendered, withploughing and managing the fields defined as men's work, for example, anddairy production becoming dominated by women.^[111]

The Normans and French who arrived after the conquest saw themselves as different from the English. They had close family and economic links to the Duchy of Normandy, spokeNorman French and had their own distinctive culture.^[112] For many years, to be English was to be associated with military failure and serfdom.^[113] During the twelfth century, the divisions between the English and Normans began to dissolve as a result of intermarriage and cohabitation.^[114]By the end of the twelfth century, and possibly as early as the 1150s, contemporary commentators believed the two peoples to be blending, and the loss of the Duchy in 1204 reinforced this trend.^[115] The resulting society still prized wider French cultural values, however, and French remained the language of the court, business and international affairs, even if Parisians mocked the English for their poor pronunciation.^{[116][117][118]}During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the English began to consider themselves superior to the Welsh, Scots andBretons. The English perceived themselves as civilised, economically prosperous and properly Christian, while theCeltic fringe was considered lazy, barbarous and backward.^[119] Following the invasion of Ireland in the late twelfth century, similar feelings were expressed about the Irish.^[120]

In the High Middle Ages, the English language underwent profound changes, which were largely characterised by the Norman influence after the conquest of England in 1066. When William the Conqueror came to power, French became the language of the nobility, the administration, the legal system and the church, while English was spoken primarily in the lower social classes.^[121]Anglo-Norman, a variant of Old French, had a huge influence on the vocabulary of English. Many French words, especially from the fields of law, administration, military, religion and culture, were integrated into the English language. Examples of this are terms such as court, justice, prison and council.^[122] This lexical influence led to greater differentiation in English, as French loanwords were often used for more elevated or abstract terms, while the English equivalents for everyday things were retained (e.g. sheep for animal and mutton for meat, from the French mouton). This linguistic division reflects the social hierarchy: the nobility and the elite used French, while the common people stuck to English.^[123]

The 1066 Norman conquest brought a new set of Norman and French churchmen to power; some adopted and embraced aspects of the former Anglo-Saxon religious system, while others introduced practices from Normandy.^[124] Extensive English lands were granted to monasteries in Normandy, allowing them to create daughter priories and monastic cells across the kingdom.^[125] The monasteries were brought firmly into the web of feudal relations, with their holding of land linked to the provision of military support to the crown.^[126] The Normans adopted the Anglo-Saxon model of monastic cathedral communities, and within seventy years the majority of English cathedrals were controlled by monks; every English cathedral, however, was rebuilt to some extent by the new rulers.^[127][128] England's bishops remained powerful temporal figures, and in the early twelfth-century raised armies against Scottish invaders and built up extensive holdings of castles across the country.^{[129][130][131]}

New orders began to be introduced into England. As ties to Normandy waned, the FrenchCluniac order became fashionable and their houses were introduced in England.^[132] TheAugustinians spread quickly from the beginning of the twelfth century onwards, while later in the century theCistercians reached England, creating houses with a more austere interpretation of the monastic rules and building the great abbeys ofRievaulx andFountains.^[133] By 1215, there were over 600 monastic communities in England, but new endowments slowed during the thirteenth century, creating long-term financial problems for many institutions.^[134][135]The religiousmilitary orders that became popular across Europe from the twelfth century onwards, including theTemplars,Teutonic Knights andHospitallers, acquired possessions in England.^[136]

William the Conqueror acquired the support of the Church for the invasion of England by promising ecclesiastical reform.^[81][137] William promoted celibacy amongst the clergy and gave ecclesiastical courts more power, but also reduced the Church's direct links to Rome and made it more accountable to the king.^[138] Tensions arose between these practices and thereforming movement of PopeGregory VII, which advocated greater autonomy from royal authority for the clergy, condemned the practice ofsimony and promoted greater influence for the papacy in church matters.^[139][140] Despite the bishops continuing to play a major part in royal government, tensions emerged between the kings of England and key leaders within the English Church. Kings and archbishops clashed over rights of appointment and religious policy, and successive archbishops includingAnselm,Theobald of Bec,Thomas Becket andStephen Langton were variously forced into exile, arrested by royal knights or even killed.^{[141][142][143]} By the early thirteenth century, however, the church had largely won its argument for independence, answering almost entirely to Rome.^[144]

Pilgrimages were a popular religious practice throughout the Middle Ages in England, with the tradition dating back to the Roman period.^[145] Typically pilgrims would travel short distances to a shrine or a particular church, either to dopenance for a perceived sin, or toseek relief from an illness or other condition.^[146] Some pilgrims travelled further, either to more distant sites within Britain or, in a few cases, on to the continent.^[147] Under the Normans, religious institutions with important shrines, such asGlastonbury, Canterbury andWinchester, promoted themselves as pilgrimage destinations, maximising the value of the historic miracles associated with the sites.^[148] Accumulatingrelics became an important task for ambitious institutions, as these were believed to hold curative powers and lent status to the site.^[149] By the twelfth century reports of posthumousmiracles by local saints were becoming increasingly common in England, adding to the attractiveness of pilgrimages to prominent relics.^[150]

The idea of undertaking a pilgrimage toJerusalem was not new in England, as the idea of religiously justified warfare went back to Anglo-Saxon times.^[151] While English participation in theFirst Crusade between 1095–99 was limited, England played a prominent part in theSecond,Third andFifth Crusades over the next two centuries, with many crusaders leaving forthe Levant during the intervening years.^[152] Many of those who took up the Cross to go on a Crusade never actually left, often because the individual lacked sufficient funds to undertake the journey.^[153] Raising funds to travel typically involved crusaders selling or mortgaging their lands and possessions, which affected their families and, at times, the economy as a whole was considerably affected.^[154][155]

England had a diverse geography in the medieval period, from theFenlands ofEast Anglia or the heavily woodedWeald, through to the uplandmoors ofYorkshire.^[156] Despite this, medieval England broadly formed two zones, roughly divided by the riversExe andTees: the south and east of England had lighter, richer soils, able to support botharable andpastoral agriculture, while the poorer soils and colder climate [sic] of the north and west produced a predominantly pastoral economy.^[157] Slightly more land was covered by trees than in the twentieth century, andbears,beavers andwolves lived wild in England, bears being hunted to extinction by the eleventh century and beavers by the twelfth.^[158]

Of the 10,000 miles of roads that had been built by the Romans, many remained in use and four were of particular strategic importance—theIcknield Way, theFosse Way,Ermine Street andWatling Street—which criss-crossed the entire country.^[159]The road system was adequate for the needs of the period, although it was significantly cheaper to transport goods by water.^[160] The major river networks formed key transport routes, while many English towns formed navigableinland ports.^[161][162]

The weather and climate in England was characterised by a relatively mild and stable period known as the Medieval Warm Period (c. 950-1250). This period was characterised by higher average temperatures than in the centuries before and after. The warm period led to a longer growing season, better agricultural yields and population growth. In southern England, the average annual temperature was probably around 1-2 °C higher than today. Summers in particular were warmer and winters milder. This was favoured by more stable weather conditions, which meant fewer extreme cold spells. Rainfall was moderate to sufficient, which favoured agriculture. In the late 13th century, a gradual drop in temperature began, which signalled the coming ‘Little Ice Age’ and led to harsher climatic conditions.^[163]

England in the High Middle Ages was a diverse region shaped by nature, with its landscape characterized by forests, meadows, marshes, rivers, and cultivated areas. Although human settlement and agricultural use had already significantly impacted the environment, much of England was still covered by semi-natural landscapes. About 23% of the land was used for agriculture. The main farming areas were located in fertile regions such as the Midlands and East Anglia, where the soil was particularly suitable for growing grains. Most people lived in small, scattered settlements, separated by extensive fields, pastures, and forests. The rest of the land consisted of woodlands, moors, marshes, heathlands, and unused grasslands.^[164]

The forests were predominantly made up of deciduous trees such as oaks, beeches, hornbeams, elms, and ashes, with occasional conifers like pines. The undergrowth consisted of shrubs such as holly, hazel, and hawthorn. In areas with poorer soils, such as the Pennines and parts of Yorkshire, there were extensive heathlands. In East Anglia and the western parts of England, there were large areas of marshes and wetlands. Forests were home to deer, stags, wild boars, wolves, and lynxes. Marshes and wetlands were habitats for beavers, otters, cranes, and a variety of waterfowl. Meadows and fields were populated by hares, rabbits (introduced by the Normans), foxes, badgers, and numerous bird species such as larks and buzzards. Rivers were rich in fish, including trout, pike, sturgeon, and eels.^[165][166]

The English economy was fundamentallyagricultural, depending on growing crops such as wheat,barley andoats on anopen field system, and husbanding sheep, cattle and pigs.^[167] Agricultural land became typically organised aroundmanors, and was divided between some fields that the landowner would manage directly, calleddemesne, and the majority of the fields that would be cultivated by localpeasants. These peasants would pay tithe to the landowner either in the form of cash or produce.^[168]

Between 1066 and 1250, the English economy underwent a period of significant transformation, characterised by the Norman Conquest, population growth^[a] and the integration of England into European trade. This period was characterised by slow but steady economic growth, which was particularly evident in agriculture, trade and urbanisation. Agricultural productivity increased between 1100 and 1250 due to the introduction of new techniques such as the three-field farming system and the increased use of ploughs and draught animals. This led to better soil cultivation and an increase in crop yields, which in turn fuelled population growth. At the same time, more and more arable land was gained. Nevertheless, agricultural production was largely geared towards local consumption and surpluses were only traded to a limited extent.^[170]

Many hundreds of new towns, some of themplanned communities, were built across England, supporting the creation ofguilds,charter fairs and other medieval institutions which governed the growing trade.^{[171][172][173]} Jewish financiers played a significant role in funding the growing economy, along with the new Cistercian and Augustinian religious orders that emerged as major players in the wool trade of the north.^[174][175]Mining increased in England, with a silver boom in the twelfth century helping to fuel theexpansion of the money supply.^[176]

England was known at this time for the production of wool, which became the most important export. Sheep farming flourished, particularly in regions such as the Midlands and Yorkshire, and English wool was highly prized in continental markets, especially in Flanders, where it was processed into high-quality cloth. In addition to wool, leather, beer, fish and meat were also exported, and luxury goods such as wine, spices, silk and other textiles were imported. These imports were mainly aimed at the wealthier sections of the population and the nobility. Trade, both local and international, became increasingly important during this period. The development of a dense network of markets and fairs promoted regional trade, while international trade linked England more closely with Europe.

Cities such as London, York, Winchester and Norwich developed into trading centres and benefited from increasing urbanisation.^[177]London, the largest trading centre, had a major port on the Thames and maintained close trading links with Flanders, France, the Baltic and the Mediterranean. The Hanseatic League, which dominated trade in northern Europe, also played a role in the exchange of goods between England and the Baltic neighbours. English ports such as Boston and Lynn became important transhipment centres for the wool trade.^[178] In addition, Norman kings and later the Plantagenets encouraged trade by regulating tariffs and taxes and granting trading privileges to foreign merchants.^[179][180]

Anglo-Norman warfare was characterised byattritional military campaigns, in which commanders tried to raid enemy lands and seize castles in order to allow them to take control of their adversaries' territory, ultimately winning slow but strategic victories. Pitched battles were occasionally fought between armies but these were considered risky engagements and usually avoided by prudent commanders.^[181] The armies of the period comprised bodies of mounted, armouredknights, supported byinfantry.Crossbowmen become more numerous in the twelfth century, alongside the oldershortbow.^[182] At the heart of these armies was thefamilia regis, the permanent military household of the king, which was supported in war by feudal levies, drawn up by local nobles for a limited period of service during a campaign.^[183][184] Mercenaries were increasingly employed, driving up the cost of warfare, and adequate supplies of ready cash became essential for the success of campaigns.^[185][186]

Naval forces played an important role during the Middle Ages, enabling the transportation of troops and supplies, raids into hostile territory and attacks on enemy fleets.^[187] English naval power became particularly important after the loss of Normandy in 1204, which turned the English Channel from a friendly transit route into a contested and critical border region.^[188]

Although a small number of castles had been built in England during the 1050s, after the conquest the Normans began to build timbermotte and bailey andringwork castles in large numbers to control their newly occupied territories.^[189][190] During the twelfth century the Normans began to build more castles in stone, with characteristic squarekeeps that supported both military and political functions.^[191] Royal castles were used to control key towns and forests, whilstbaronial castles were used by the Norman lords to control their widespread estates; a feudal system called the castle-guard was sometimes used to provide garrisons.^[192] Castles andsieges continued to grow in military sophistication during the twelfth century.^[193][194]

The Norman conquest introduced northern French artistic styles, particular in illuminated manuscripts and murals, and reduced the demand for carvings.^[195] In other artistic areas, including embroidery, the Anglo-Saxon influence remained evident into the twelfth century, and the famousBayeux Tapestry is an example of older styles being reemployed under the new regime.^[196]Stained glass had been introduced into Anglo-Saxon England. Very few examples of glass survive from the Norman period, but there are a few examples that survive from minor monasteries and parish churches. The largest collections of twelfth-century stained glass at the Cathedrals ofYork andCanterbury.^[197]

Poetry and stories written in French were popular after the Norman conquest, and by the twelfth century some works on English history began to be produced in French verse.^[198] Romantic poems about tournaments and courtly love became popular in Paris and this fashion spread into England in the form oflays; stories about the court ofKing Arthur were also fashionable, due in part to the interest of Henry II.^[199][200] English continued to be used on a modest scale to write local religious works and some poems in the north of England, but most major works were produced in Latin or French.^[201] Music and singing were important in England during the medieval period, being used in religious ceremonies, court occasions and to accompany theatrical works.^[202][203] From the eleventh century distinctivemonophonicplainchant was superseded, as elsewhere in Europe, by standardisedGregorian chant.^[204]

The Normans brought with them architectural styles from their own duchy, where austere stone churches were preferred. Under the early Norman kings this style was adapted to produce large, plain cathedrals with ribbedvaulting.^[205] During the twelfth century the Anglo-Norman style became richer and more ornate, with pointed arches derived from French architecture replacing the curved Romanesque designs; this style is termedEarly English Gothic and continued, with variation, throughout the rest of the Middle Ages.^[206] In domestic architecture, the Normans, having first occupied the older Anglo-Saxon dwellings, rapidly beginning to build larger buildings in stone and timber. The elite preferred houses with large, ground-floor halls but the less wealthy constructed simpler houses with the halls on the first floor; master and servants frequently lived in the same spaces.^[207] Wealthier town-houses were also built using stone, and incorporated business and domestic arrangements into a single functional design.^[208]

The period has been used in a wide range of popular culture.William Shakespeare's plays on the lives of the medieval kings have proved to have had long lasting appeal, heavily influencing both popular interpretations and histories of figures such as King John.^[209] Other playwrights have since taken key events and personalities as the subject of drama, includingT. S. Eliot'sMurder in the Cathedral (1935) andJean Anouilh'sBecket (1959), that focus on the death of Thomas Becket andJames Goldman'sThe Lion in Winter (1966), which focuses on Henry II and his sons.^[210][211]Walter Scott's location ofRobin Hood in the reign of Richard I and his emphasis on the conflict between Saxons and Normans set the template for much later fiction and film adaptations.^[212] Historical fiction set in England during the Middle Ages remains persistently popular, with the 1980s and 1990s seeing a particular growth of historicaldetective fiction such asEllis Peters'sThe Cadfael Chronicles set in the Anarchy,^[213][214] which is also the location of much ofKen Follett's best-sellingThe Pillars of the Earth (1989).^[215] Film-makers have drawn extensively on the medieval period, often taking themes from Shakespeare or the Robin Hood ballads for inspiration and adapting historical romantic novels asIvanhoe (1952).^{[216][217][218]} More recent revivals of these genres includeRobin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991) andKingdom of Heaven (2005).^[219]

• England in the High Middle Ages
• Medieval history of England
• History of England by period
• 11th century in England
• 12th century in England
• 13th century in England

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