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Kingdom of Norway
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| 872–1397 | |||||||||||||||
.svg) LikelyRoyal Banner used since the 13th century.  Coat of arms variant used from the12th–13th century. | |||||||||||||||
.jpg) Norway at its greatest extent, around 1263 | |||||||||||||||
| Status |
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| Capital |
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| Common languages | Majority languages: Other languages: Lingua franca: Writing system:
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| Religion | State religions:
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| Demonym(s) | Norwegian | ||||||||||||||
| Government | Feudal monarchy (872–1027) Unitaryfeudal monarchy (1027–1397) | ||||||||||||||
| Monarch | |||||||||||||||
• 872–932 | Harald I (first) | ||||||||||||||
• 1387–1397 | Margaret I (last) | ||||||||||||||
| Legislature | None (872–c. 1000) Þing(i.e.Gulatingslǫg,Borgarþingslǫg,Heiðsævisþing, andFrostuþingslǫg) (c. 1000–c. 1300) Riksråd (c. 1300–1397) | ||||||||||||||
| Historical era | Middle Ages | ||||||||||||||
• Established | 872 | ||||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 1397 | ||||||||||||||
| Currency | Norwegian penning (995–1397) | ||||||||||||||
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| Today part of | See:Loss of Norwegian possessions | ||||||||||||||
The termNorwegian Realm (Old Norse: *Noregsveldi,Bokmål:Norgesveldet,Nynorsk:Noregsveldet) andOld Kingdom of Norway refer to theKingdom of Norway's peak of power at the 13th century after a long period ofcivil war before 1240. The kingdom was a loosely unified nation including the territory of modern-day Norway, modern-day Swedish territory ofJämtland,Herjedalen, Ranrike (Bohuslän) andIdre andSärna, as well as Norway's overseas possessions which had been settled byNorwegianseafarers for centuries before being annexed or incorporated into the kingdom as 'tax territories'. To the North, Norway also bordered extensive tax territories on the mainland. Norway, whose expansionism starts from the very foundation of the Kingdom in 872, reached the peak of its power in the years between 1240 and 1319.
At the peak of Norwegian expansion before thecivil war (1130–1240),Sigurd I led theNorwegian Crusade (1107–1110). The crusaders won battles inLisbon and theBalearic Islands. In theSiege of Sidon they fought alongsideBaldwin I andOrdelafo Faliero, and the siege resulted in an expansion of theKingdom of Jerusalem.[2]Leif Erikson, anIcelander of Norwegian origin and officialhirdman of KingOlaf I of Norway, explored America 500 years before Columbus.[3]Adam of Bremen wrote about the new lands inGesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum (1076) when meetingSweyn I of Denmark, but no other sources indicate that this knowledge went farther into Europe thanBremen, Germany. The Kingdom of Norway was the second European country after England to enforce a unified code of law to be applied for the whole country, calledMagnus Lagabøtes landslov (1274).
The secular power was at its strongest at the end of KingHaakon Haakonsson's reign in 1263. An important element of the period was the ecclesiastical supremacy of the archdiocese ofNidaros from 1152. There are no reliable sources for when Jämtland was placed under thearchbishop ofUppsala. Uppsala was established later, and was the third metropolitan diocese in Scandinavia afterLund and Nidaros. The church participated in a political process both before and during theKalmar Union that aimed at[clarification needed] Swedish side, to establish a position for Sweden in Jämtland. This area had been a borderland in relation to the Swedish kingdom, and probably in some sort of alliance withTrøndelag, just as withHålogaland.
A unified realm was initiated by KingHarald I Fairhair in the 9th century. His efforts inunifying thepetty kingdoms of Norway resulted in the first known Norwegian central government. The country, however, soon fragmented, and was again collected into one entity in the first half of the 11th century. Norway has been a monarchy since Fairhair, passing through several eras.
WhenHarald Fairhair became king of Norway after thebattle at Hafrsfjord (traditional date: 18 July 872), he looked west to the isles that had been colonised by Norwegians for a century already, and by 875 theNorthern Isles of Orkney and Shetland had been brought under his rule and given toRagnvald Eysteinsson,Jarl ofMøre.
Iceland was more reluctant to give up its independent rule, so the Icelandic saga authorSnorri Sturluson was given a royal invitation to the court of KingHaakon Haakonsson and was there convinced that Iceland was by right Norwegian. So began theAge of the Sturlungs, a time of political strife in Iceland. The Sturlungs worked to bring Iceland under Norwegian rule, spreading propaganda through their positions at theAlthing and even resorting to violence beforethe Old Covenant was signed in 1262, which brought total Norwegian rule over the island.
In RanríkiKonunghella was built as a royal city alongsideTúnsberg andBiorgvin. It remained Norwegian until the1658 Roskilde treaty. Herjárdalr became Norwegian during the 12th century and remained so for five centuries. Jamtaland started paying taxes to Norway during the 13th century and was later absorbed into a part of the mainland territory in the same century. It was occupied by the Swedish during theNordic Seven Years' War, but later returned to Denmark-Norway as a result of theStettin treaty of 1570. Idre and Særna, Norwegian since the 12th century, were conquered by Sweden duringthe Hannibal controversy. Ranríki, Herjárdalr, Jamtaland, Idre and Særna were permanently surrendered to Sweden by the Peace of Brömsebro 13 August 1645.
Viken, counties underBorgarþing:
Oppland, counties underHeiðsævisþing:
Vestlandet, counties underGulaþing:
Trøndelag, counties underFrostaþing:
Rest of Norway, counties not attached to athing:
From the 600s Western Norwegian fish farmers began anexodus to the nearby islands in theNorth Sea,Orkney andShetland, and then later to the Western Isles, like theHebrides and theIsle of Man, and westward to the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Greenland. Some of these islands were inhabited when the Norwegians arrived, but the local population wasdisplaced orassimilated by the Norwegian immigrants.
Consistently, the islands' populations had a Norwegian ancestry, who kept in touch with thehomeland over the North Sea. These Norwegians had their own chiefs or kings in the Norwegian tradition, subject to Norwegian royal power when it eventually developed a centralized state. Often, Norwegian kings had enough to contend with on the mainland, so the local power in the villages was often in the hands of local earls who operated on behalf of the king.
Holdings in Sweden were in varying degrees Norwegian. By the 9th and 10th centuries, it is reasonable to assume that the population of Båhuslen, Jämtland and Herjedalen had no national affiliation to Norway,Svealand, orGötaland. It lay to the increasinglycentralized monarchy to create this, which had to consolidate its right in the border areas above the neighboringkingdoms. Norway was then the first to integrate these areas into its kingdom.
Iceland, Faroe Islands and Greenland remained under Norwegian administration until 1814.
Thetreaty of Perth (1266) accepted Norwegian sovereignty over Shetland and Orkney; in turn Norway had to give the Hebrides and Isle of Man to Scotland.
Vassals annexed by King Magnus III in 1098.
Ireland
Scotland
Wales
England
Eric I of Norway ruled Northumbria for two separate periods. Northumbria has also been ruled by Norway underCnut the Great, as well asWest Norse people of the British Isles. The most important city was calledJórvík (York).
France
The Duchy of Normandy was ruled by Norwegian and Danish Vikings, under the leadership ofRollo. Following extensive raids onParis and vast areas in France, the duchy was founded in 911. The main purpose was to gain land for independent Vikings in this region, therefore Rollo swore a vassalage under France rather than Norway or Denmark. Although Rollo's ancestry is disputed, it is now common among British, French and Norwegian scientists to have the opinion that, judging from the sources and the possible two alternatives, more sources point to Norwegian ancestry.[10][11] His descendant,William the Conqueror and hisNorman army, wouldconquer England in 1066 afterKing Harald III of Norway had failed the same year.
Scotland
Yngling /Fairhair dynasty
_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%2527Orto%2c_29-March-2008.jpg)
Lade dynasty
Trygvason dynasty
Lade dynasty (restored)
Saint Olaf dynasty
Lade dynasty (restored, second time)
Saint Olaf dynasty (restored)
Hardrada dynasty
Gille dynasty
Hardrada dynasty (female line)
Sverre dynasty
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Gille dynasty (female line)
Sverre dynasty (restored)
The civil war era began in 1130 and ended in 1240. In this period ofNorwegian history, some two dozen rival kings and pretenderswaged wars to claimthe throne. The Civil War period can be divided into three phases: the first phase is sporadic strife betweenthe kings from 1130 to the second phase where there are extensive battles between them from 1160 to 1184 and the final phase in which the Birkebeiners defeat the rest in 1240.
In the absence of formal laws governing claims to rule, men who had proper lineage and wanted to be king came forward and entered into peaceful, if still fraught, agreements to let one man be king, set up temporary lines of succession, take turns ruling, or share power simultaneously. In 1130, with the death of KingSigurd the Crusader, his possible half-brother,Harald Gillekrist, broke an agreement that he and Sigurd had made to pass the throne to Sigurd's only son, the bastardMagnus. Already on bad terms before Sigurd's death, the two men and the factions loyal to them went to war.
In the first decades of the civil wars, alliances shifted and centered on the person of a king or pretender. However, towards the end of the 12th century, two rival parties, theBirkebeiner and theBagler emerged. In their competition for power, the legitimacy dimension retained its symbolic power, but it was bent to accommodate the parties' pragmatic selection of effective leaders to realize their political aspirations. When they reconciled in 1217, a more ordered and codified governmental system gradually freed Norway from wars to overthrow the lawful monarch. In 1239, DukeSkule Bårdsson became the third pretender to wage war against KingHåkon Håkonsson. Duke Skule was defeated in 1240, bringing more than 100 years of civil wars to an end.[13]
Aristocracy of Norway refers tomodern andmedievalaristocracy inNorway. Additionally, there have been economical, political, and military elites that—relating to the main lines ofNorway's history—are generally accepted as nominal predecessors of the aforementioned. Since the 16th century, modern aristocracy is known as nobility (Norwegian:adel).
The very first aristocracy in today's Norway appeared during theBronze Age (1800 BC–500 BC). This bronze aristocracy consisted of several regional elites, whose earliest known existence dates to 1500 BC. Via similar structures in the Iron Age (400 BC–793 AD), these entities would reappear aspetty kingdoms before and during theAge of Vikings (793–1066). Beside a chieftain or petty king, each kingdom had its own aristocracy.
Between 872 and 1050, during the so-calledunification process, the first national aristocracy began to develop. Regional monarchs and aristocrats who recognisedKing Harald I as theirhigh king, would normally receivevassalagetitles likeEarl. Those who refused were defeated or chose to migrate toIceland, establishing an aristocratic,clan-ruled state there. The subsequentlendman aristocracy in Norway—powerful feudal lords and their families—ruled their respective regions with great autonomy. Their status was by no means equal to that of modern nobles; they were nearly half royal. For example,Ingebjørg Finnsdottir of the Arnmødling dynasty was married toKing Malcolm III of Scotland. During thecivil war era (1130–1240) the old lendmen were severely weakened, and many disappeared. This aristocracy was ultimately defeated byKing Sverre I and theBirchlegs, subsequently being replaced by supporters of Sverre.
From the 7th century Norwegian farmers began to exodus fromRogaland andAgder to the nearby islands in the North Sea, Orkney and Shetland. These islands had long been undeveloped when the Norwegians arrived, thePicts, a possiblyCeltic people who also stayed in mainlandScotland. The Norwegian settlement resulted in the disappearance of the old population, either because they were few and went back to relatives in Scotland, or because they were madeslaves (thralls). Most place names on the islands are today of old Norwegian ancestry.
Old legends says that when Harald Fairhair had implemented their piraticalexpeditions for the national collection, these islands haunt forVikings ravaged Norway. King Harald awaking West sea and let themselves under Orkney, Shetland and the Hebrides, and got to the Man and harried there. Sagas recounts further that Harald founded Earldom Orkneys, which encompassed all these islands, and he is considered to be the first Norwegian king who reigned over Kingdom of Norway.
However, it is likely that these stories are thesaga authors works, to corroborate later Norwegian kings claims over these islands. Some sources find it unlikely that the Norwegian kings had sovereignty in the Hebrides, Man, Orkney and Shetland back to the early 800s.
Sigurd Eysteinsson the firstEarl of Orkney, was the brother ofRognvald Eysteinsson Earl ofMøre, and the earldom was in this dynasty to 1231. From the first moment the earl had tasks to protect the land and take care of land peace. He had a smalllething raft and took a feast of the people.
The islands wereChristianized by KingOlav Tryggvason in 995. They got themselves abishop in the 1000s, and from 1152 he heard the Archbishop of Nidaros. Thediocese of Orkney was moved to Kirkjuvåg (Kirkwall) and there it were built acathedral church that stands today. It was the largest cathedral in the archdiocese's second afterNidaros Cathedral, and was consecrated to SaintMagnus Erlendsson, who was killed in 1115.
When the islanders had to put up against the KingSverre Sigurdsson at theBattle of Florvåg outsideBergen in 1194, the king took Shetland from the earl of Orkney and let it directly under the king.
On the Hebrides there were also Norwegian settlement and Norwegiangovernment. It is estimated that the settlement here took to about 800. Harald Fairhair should have inserted an Earl here too. But supremacy in these Viking islands was unstable. Here was the elderly population not taken out. Place names show that the Norwegians lived closest to the islands ofLewis (Ljodhus) andSkye. TheCelts had a well knownmonastery on their sacred island ofIona, and settlers from Norway soon became Christianized.
The Vikings came to the Isle of Man in the year 798, and eventually became a Norwegian settlement there. The Norwegians lived on most of the northern and western edge of the island, while the Celts continued to live on the southern and eastern edge of the island. Many place names are reminiscent of the former Norwegian settlement.
Man stood sometimes under their own Viking kings or under the Norwegian king ofDublin and was long a kingdom with the Hebrides. Harald Fairhair process hit previously mentioned.Magnus Barefoot's time (1102–1103) heard the kingdom Hebrides and Man to the Kingdom of Norway. From 1153 every new king paid of the Hebrides and Man a bilgefee of 10 gold marks to every new king of Norway.
In 1266 the Hebrides and Man came under Scotland and since came the Isle of Man under England. TheNorwegian language of Man died out in the 1400s.
An Irishman wrote year 825 that it had lived Irishhermits in the Faroe Islands in a hundred years, but they were lost because of the Norwegian Vikings. Otherwise, there were no population on these islands when Norwegian settlers settled there. The first settler namedGrímur Kamban, and the settlement should have been done something before the year 825. Faroe Islands became subject to the Norwegian kingdom in 1035 or something before.
Also here lived a few Irish hermits there when the Vikings arrived, and solitaries went his way, as the settlement was made in unpopulated land. Settlement period began with theIngolv Ørnsson from Sunnfjord took the land in Reykjavík year 874 and lasted until 930. Most settlers came from 890 to 910. It was mostly people who would not stand under Harald Fairhair.
In 1262–1264 Iceland came under the control of the King of Norway, who said Icelanders should provide histax. Terms were set out in an agreement in 1262, which the Icelanders called Gissur conciliation, after the EarlGissur Þorvaldsson. Here it says that the King will leave the peace and Icelandiclaws, and basically it was so.
Erik the Red lived inJæren, but he and his father were exiled from Norway due to murder, and settled in Iceland. Erik came up in murder cases there too, and wasoutlawed. Then he went to Greenland, foundWest Greenland, and made himself familiar with the country. TheBook of Settlements suggests that this land was known before Erik, andSnæbjörn galti Hólmsteinsson attempted and failed to colonize eastern Greenland, but Erik was the first permanent settler.
He came back to Iceland, fought with his old opponent, and lost. They were reconciled that Erik had to leave Iceland. That same year, 986, Erik came with a fleet of 14 ships with settlers to Greenland. They settled in the south of West Greenland, in the two villages called Eystribygð (Eastern Settlement) and Vestribygð (Western Settlement).
Our knowledge of Eirik's colonization efforts is derived from writings of theMiddle Ages, and fromexcavations done in modern times. When the settlement was at its largest, was there 16churches, 2 monasteries and 280farms in Greenland. The biggest farm was the episcopal estate at Gardar, where the big room was 36 m2 (388 sq ft) and a banquet hall was 130 m2 (1,399 sq ft) and where they had 100 caliper[clarification needed] bound cattle.
The country became Christian in the year 1000, introduced byLeif Eiriksson who was commissioned by KingOlaf Tryggvason, and was later a separate diocese. (According to theSaga of Erik the Red, Leif became the first European to discover the North American continent when he was blown off course during his voyage back to Greenland from Norway.) From the sagas[specify] it is clear that Greenland was considered a separate country at this time.
In 1247 a newly appointed bishop came from Norway to Greenland, with orders from King Haakon IV Håkonsson that Greenlanders should not go to the king. In 1261 some farmers came back from Greenland with the message that Greenlanders had committed themselves to paying tax to the king.
It has been claimed that KingHarald Fairhair made it part of the unified Norway in about 872, but contemporary sources give rise to doubt that Harald actually ever held the Viken area properly. The earliest proof of Båhus lands being in Norway's hands is from the 11th century.
As long as Norway was a kingdom of its own, the province prospered, and Båhus castle was one of the key fortresses of the kingdom. When Norway was united withDenmark, the province began its decline in wealth; the area was frequently attacked by Swedish forces as part of the larger border skirmishes. The Norwegian fortress,Båhus, was built to protect this territory. Being a border zone towards the Swedish kingdom, and to a lesser extent against Danish lands in Halland, the Båhus region was disproportionately populated by soldier families.
Snorre Sturlasson writes inHeimskringla about,Ketil Jamt the son of Onund Earl ofSparbu in Trøndelag, he moved east over the ridge to people andlivestock, and cleaned up Jämtland. In the saga ofEgill Skallagrímsson he writes that the plundering of Harald Fairhair ascended[clarification needed] many people including Jämtland.
According to Snorre, Jämtland had in Harald Fairhair's time an independent position. UnderHaakon the Good gave[clarification needed] Jämts in Norway under the King and he promised tax and Hakon put law and land rights for them. This joystick at the front in the 1000s.[clarification needed] InEric Haakonsson Earl ofLade's, time Jämtland was a part oflens division after the settlement of the great navalBattle of Svolder and Jämtland, Herjedalen,Rana,Båhuslen andRomsdal had fallen on Erik's brotherSvein after agreement with the Swedish king,Olof Skötkonung. When Olav demanded tax of Jämtland, he didn't get it.
Jämtland received Christianity from the east as Trøndelag did. According to aninscription in Norwegian from the mid-1000s the country was Christianized by a man named Austmann Gudfastsson. Ecclesiastical heard[clarification needed] country under the Archbishop of Uppsala some time before 1571. Also KingØystein Magnusson (1103–1122) made a claim against the Jämts, that they should go under the king of Norway.
Herjulv Hornbrjot is reported to have been the first to settle in Herjedalen. He was noticed husband (standard bearer) with King Halfdan the Black, but came in disgrace and went to Svearike. There he became an outlaw and then he settled in Herjedalen, which then laid in Norway. This must have been around the year 850. Herjedalen becameChristian in the years 1030 to 1060, and belonged to the diocese of Nidaros.
Gjesvær in Nordkapp is mentioned in theSagas (Heimskringla) as a northern harbor in theViking Age, especially used by Vikings on the way toBjarmaland (seeOttar from Hålogaland), and probably also for gathering food in the nearby seabird colony. Coastal areas of Finnmark were colonized by Norwegians beginning in the 10th century, and there are stories describing clashes with theKarelians. Border skirmishes between the Norwegians andNovgorodians continued until 1326, when theTreaty of Novgorod settled the issue.
From the 11th centuryOlaf III of Norway regarded the borders of Norway as reaching to theWhite Sea. The first Norwegians started moving to Finnmark in the 13th century.Vardøhus Fortress was erected by Norway in 1306 further east thantoday's land border by KingHaakon V Magnusson, supporting Norwegian land ownership. This isthe world's most northern fortress.
Finnmark derives from Finnmork, and is the old Norwegian (Norrøn) description of the land of the Sami people, Sápmi.
By the 13th century, a need to formalize the border between the Novgorod Republic and the Scandinavian countries became evident.[14] The Novgorodians, along with theKarelians who came from the south, reached the coast of what now isPechengsky District and the portion of the coast ofVarangerfjord near theVoryema River, which now is a part of Norway.[14] The Sami population was forced to pay tribute.[14] The Norwegians, however, were also attempting to take control of these lands, resulting in armed conflicts.[14] In 1251, a conflict between the Karelians, Novgorodians and the servants of the king of Norway lead to the establishment of a Novgorodian mission in Norway.[14] Also in 1251, the first treaty with Norway was signed inNovgorod regarding the Sami lands and the system of tribute collections, making the Sami people pay tribute to both Novgorod and Norway.[14] By the terms of the treaty, Novgorodians could collect tribute from the Sami as far asLyngen fjord in the west, while Norwegians could collect tribute on the territory of the whole Kola Peninsula except in the eastern part of Tersky Coast.[14] No state borders were established by the 1251 treaty.[14] At that time there were no permanent Norwegian settlements on theKola Peninsula, except as late as the 1860s.
The treaty lead to a short period of peace, but the armed conflicts resumed soon thereafter.[14] Chronicles document attacks by the Novgorodians and the Karelians on Finnmark and northern Norway as early as 1271, and continuing well into the 14th century.[14] The official border between the Novgorod lands and the lands of Sweden and Norway was established by theTreaty of Nöteborg on 12 August 1323.[14] The treaty primarily focused on theKarelian Isthmus border and the border north ofLake Ladoga.[14]
Another treaty dealing the matters of the northern borders was theTreaty of Novgorod signed with Norway in 1326, which ended the decades of the Norwegian-Novgorodian border skirmishes in Finnmark.[15] Per the terms of this treaty, Norway relinquished all claims to the Kola Peninsula.[15] A signed agreement regarding the taxation of the Kola Peninsula and Finnmark.[16] No border line was drawn, creating amarchland where both countries held the right to taxation of theSami people.[17]However, the treaty did not address the situation with the Sami people paying tribute to both Norway and Novgorod, and the practice continued until 1602.[15] While the 1326 treaty did not define the border in detail, it confirmed the 1323 border demarcation, which remained more or less unchanged for the next six hundred years, until 1920.[15]
After the extinction of the male lines of the perceived Fairhair dynasty in 1319, the throne of Norway passed through matrilineal descent toMagnus VII, who in the same year became elected as king of Sweden too. In 1343 Magnus had to abdicate as King of Norway in favour of his younger son,Haakon VI of Norway. The oldest son,Eric, was explicitly removed from the future line of succession of Norway. Traditionally Norwegian historians have interpreted this clear break with previous successions as stemming from dissatisfaction among the Norwegian nobility with Norway's junior position in the union. However it may also be the result of Magnus' dynastic policies. He had two sons and two kingdoms and might have wished they should inherit one each, rather than start battling over the inheritance. Magnus was at the same time attempting to secure Eric's future election as King of Sweden.
TheBlack Death of 1349–1351 was a contributing factor to the decline of the Norwegian monarchy as the noble families and population in general were gravely affected. But the most devastating factor for the nobility and the monarchy in Norway was the steep decline in income from their holdings. Manyfarms were deserted and rents and taxes suffered. This left the Norwegian monarchy weakened in terms of manpower, noble support, defence ability and economic power.[18] The Black Death ended up depleting the population by 65%, from roughly 350,000 to 125,000.[19]
After the death ofHaakon VI of Norway in 1380, his sonOlav IV of Norway succeeded to both the thrones of Norway andDenmark and also claimed the Kingdom of Sweden, holding its westernmost provinces already. Only after his death at the age of 17 his motherMargaret managed to oust their rival, king Albert, from Sweden, and thus united the three Scandinavian kingdoms in personal union under one crown, in theKalmar Union. Olav's death extinguished yet one Norwegian male royal line; he was also the last Norwegian king to be born on Norwegian soil for the next 567 years.[18]After the death of Olav IV of Norway in 1387, the closest in line to the succession was the Swedish kingAlbert of Mecklenburg. However, his succession was politically unacceptable to the Norwegians and Danes. Next in line were the descendants of theSudreim lineage, legitimate descendants ofHaakon V of Norway's illegitimate, but recognized daughter Agnes Haakonardottir, Dame of Borgarsyssel. However, the candidate from this lineage renounced his claim to the throne in favour ofEric of Pomerania, Queen Margaret's favoured candidate. The succession right of this lineage resurfaced in 1448 after the death of KingChristopher, but the potential candidate, Sigurd Jonsson, again renounced his candidature (seeSudreim claim). Eric's succession was one in a line of successions which did not precisely follow the laws of inheritance, but excluded one or a few undesirable heirs, leading to Norway formally becoming an elective kingdom in 1450.[20]
Starting withMargaret I of Denmark, the throne of Norway was held by a series of non-Norwegian kings usually perceived as Danish, who variously held the throne to more than one Scandinavian countries, or of all of them.
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