Relatively little scholarly research was published on non-belief until about 2010.[2]
Over the past several decades,[when?] the number of secular persons has increased, with a rapid rise in the early 21st century, in manycountries.[3][4]: 4 [1][5]: 112 [6] In virtually everyhigh-income country and manypoor countries, religion has declined.[5]: 112 Highly secular societies tend to be societally healthy and successful.[7] Social scientists have predicted declines in religious beliefs and their replacement with more scientific/naturalistic outlooks (secularization hypothesis).[8] According toRonald Inglehart, this trend seems likely to continue and a reverse rarely lasts long because the trend is driven bytechnological innovation.[9] However, other researchers disagree (contra-secularization hypothesis).[8] By 2050,Pew Research Center (Pew) expects irreligious people to probably decline as a share of theworld population (16.4% to 13.2%), at least for a time, because of faster population growth in highly religious countries andshrinking populations in at least some less religious countries.[1][10] Many countries may also be gradually becoming more secular, generation by generation.[10] Younger generations tend to be less religious than their elders.[10][11]: 5 They might become more religious as they age, but still be less religious than previous generations if their countries become more affluent and stable.[11]: 13 Nonetheless, secularization is compatible with religion since most versions of secularity do not lead to atheism or irreligion.[12] Religious congruence, that is consistency between beliefs and behaviors, in individuals is rare.[13]: 2 Religious incongruence is not the same thing as religious insincerity or hypocrisy.[13]: 5 The widespread religious congruence fallacy occurs when interpretations or explanations unjustifiably presume religious congruence.[13]: 19 This fallacy also infects "New Atheist" critiques of religion.[13]: 21
Estimating the number of irreligious people in the world is difficult.[14][1] Those who do not affiliate with a religion are diverse. In many countries censuses and demographic surveys do not separate atheists, agnostics and those responding "nothing in particular" as distinct populations, obscuring significant differences that may exist between them.[15]: 60 People can feel reasonable anxieties about giving a politically ‘wrong’ answer – in either direction.[14] Measurement of irreligiosity requires a high degree of cultural sensitivity, especially outside the West, where the concepts of "religion" or "the secular" are not always rooted in local culture and may not even be present.[4]: 31–34 The sharp distinction, and often antagonism, between "religious" and "secular" is culturally and historically unique to the West since in most of human history and cultures, there was little differentiation between the natural and supernatural and concepts do not always transfer across cultures.[4]: 31 Forms of secularity always reflect the societal, historical, cultural and religious contexts in which they emerge, and distinctions are sharp in religiously dominant contexts.[4]: 31 Also, there's considerable prevalence of atheism and agnosticism in ancient Asian texts.[16] Atheistic traditionshave played a significant part in those cultures for millennia.[16] "Cultural religion" must be taken into account: non-religious people can be found in religious categories, especially where religion has very deep-seated religious roots in a culture.[15]: 59 Many of the religiously unaffiliated have some religious beliefs.[17][18]: 24 Also, some of them engage in certain kinds of religious practices.[17][18]: 24 In 2016,Zuckerman, Galen and Pasquale estimated there were 400 million nonreligious or nontheistic people.[19]A 2022Gallup International Association (GIA) survey, done in 61 countries, reported that 62% of respondents said they are religious, one in four that they aren't, 10% that they're atheists and the rest are not sure.[20] In 2016, it found similar results (62%, 25%, 9% and 5%), also in 2014.[20][21]: 1 : 3 People in theEuropean Union,East Asia andOceania were the least religious.[20]In 2010, according to Pew, the religiously unaffiliated numbered more than 1.1 billion, about one-in-six people (16.3% of an estimated 6.9 billion).[22][17][18]: 24 : 25 76% of them resided in the 60 countries ofAsia-Pacific.[17][18]: 25 : 46 : 66 China, officially anatheist state and considered to be theworld's first or second most populous country,[note 1] alone held the majority (62.2% or about 700 million).[23][24]: 1 [25][1][17][18]: 25 : 46 : 66 Nevertheless, several smaller countries, especially in Europe and Asia, eclipse China's percent of residents who are irreligious with even higher proportions.[25] Shares were relatively similar in three of the six regions: Asia-Pacific (21.2% of more than 4 billion),Europe (18.2% of more than 742 thousands) andNorth America (17.1% of more than 344 thousands).[17][18]: 25 Men,younger people, andwhites,Asians, and people ofJewish heritage are more likely to be secular.[7]
Irreligion is either a borrowing from French or from Latin.[26] The termirreligion is a combination of the nounreligion and their- form of the prefixin-, signifying "not" (similar toirrelevant). It was first attested in French asirréligion in 1527, then in English asirreligion in 1598. It was borrowed intoDutch asirreligie in the 17th century, though it is not certain from which language.[27]
According to theencyclopediaBritannica, the term irreligion is frequently characterized differently depending on context.[1] Sometimes, surveys of religious belief use lack of identification with areligion as a marker of irreligion.[1] This can be misleading: in some cases a person may identify with a religious cultural institution but not hold the doctrines of that institution or take part in its religious practice.[1]
Some scholars define irreligion as the active rejection of religion, as opposed to the mere absence of religion.[1] TheEncyclopedia of Religion and Society defines it as: "Active rejection of religion in general or any of its more specific organized forms. It is thus distinct from the secular, which simply refers to the absence of religion. [...] In contemporary usage, it is increasingly employed as a synonym for unbelief [...]"[28][29] Sociologist Colin Campbell also describes it as "deliberate indifference towards religion", in his 1971Towards a Sociology of Irreligion.[30]
TheOxford English Dictionary has two definitions, one of which is labelledobsolete (first published in 1900).[26] It is want of religion; hostility to or disregard of religious principles; irreligious conduct.[26]
TheMerriam Webster Dictionary defines it as "the quality or state of being irreligious" and "irreligious" as "neglectful of religion: lacking religious emotions, doctrines, or practices", also "indicating lack of religion".[31]
Also for "religion", there is no universally agreed-upon definition, even within the social sciences.[4]: 15
Agnostic atheism is a philosophical position that encompasses bothatheism andagnosticism. Agnostic atheists areatheistic because they do not believe in the existence of any deity andagnostic because they claim that the existence of adeity is either unknowable in principle or unknown in fact.
Alatrism or alatry (Greek: from the privativeἀ- +λατρεία (latreia) = worship) is the recognition of the existence of one or more gods, but with a deliberate lack of worship of any deity. Typically, it includes the belief that religious rituals have no supernatural significance and that gods ignore all prayers and worship.
Anti-clericalism is opposition to religious authority, typically in social or political matters.
Antireligion is opposition to or rejection of religion of any kind.
Apatheism is the attitude ofapathy or indifference toward the existence or non-existence of any deity.
Atheism is the lack of belief that any deities exist; in a narrower sense, positive atheism is specifically the position that there are factually no deities. There are ranges ofnegative and positive atheism.
Antitheism is the explicit opposition totheism. The term has had a range of applications. It typically refers to direct opposition to belief in anydeity.
Freethought.[4]: 14 It holds that positions regarding truth should be formed on the basis of logic, reason, and empiricism rather than authority, tradition, revelation, ordogma.
Ignosticism, also known asigtheism, is the idea that the question of theexistence of God is meaningless because the word "God" has no coherent, unambiguous definition.
Nones can be used to refer to those who are unaffiliated with any organized religion. This use derives from surveys of religious affiliation, in which "None" (or "None of the above") is typically the last choice. Since this status can be chosen because of lack of organizational affiliation or lack of personal belief, it is a more specific concept than irreligion. A 2015Gallup, Inc. poll concluded that in theUnited States "nones" were growing as a percentage of the population, while Christians were declining and non-Christians also increasing but to a much lesser degree, since the 1950s.[32]
Secular ethics is a branch of moral philosophy in which ethics is based solely on human faculties, such as logic, empathy, reason, and ethical intuition, and not derived from belief in supernatural revelation or guidance—a source of ethics in many religions.
Secular humanism is a system of thought that prioritizes human rather than divine matters.
Secular liberalism is a form ofliberalism in which secularist principles and values, and sometimes non-religious ethics, are especially emphasised.
Secular paganism is an outlook that upholds the virtues and principles associated withpaganism while maintaining a secular worldview.
Post-theism is a variant ofnontheism that proposes that the division oftheism andatheism is obsolete and that the God-idea belongs to a stage of human development now past. Within nontheism, post-theism can be contrasted withantitheism.
Secularism.[3][4]: 14 It is also used to describe a political conviction in favor of minimizing religion in the public sphere that may be advocated for regardless of personalreligiosity. Sometimes, especially in the United States, it is also a synonym for naturalism or atheism.[33]
"Spiritual but not religious" (SBNR) is a designation coined byRobert C. Fuller for people who reject traditional ororganized religion but have strong metaphysical beliefs. The SBNR may be included under the definition of nonreligion,[34] but are sometimes classified as a wholly distinct group.[35]
Theological noncognitivism is the argument that religious language—specifically, words such asGod—are not cognitively meaningful. It is sometimes considered synonymous withignosticism.
In 1993, theUnited Nations Human Rights Committee declared that article 18 of theInternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights "protects theistic, non-theistic and atheistic beliefs, as well as the right not to profess any religion or belief."[36] The committee further stated that "the freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief necessarily entails the freedom to choose a religion or belief, including the right to replace one's current religion or belief with another or to adopt atheistic views." Signatories to the convention are barred from "the use of threat of physical force or penal sanctions to compel believers or non-believers" to recant their beliefs or convert.[37][38]
A noted exception to ambiguity, explicitly allowing non-religion, is Article 36 of theConstitution of China (as adopted in 1982), which states that "No state organ, public organization or individual may compel citizens to believe in, or not believe in, any religion; nor may they discriminate against citizens who believe in, or do not believe in, any religion."[39] Article 46 of China's1978 Constitution was even more explicit, stating that "Citizens enjoy freedom to believe in religion and freedom not to believe in religion and to propagate atheism."[40]
Women in thelabor force are more like men in religiosity.[42] When they are out of it, they tend to be more religious.[42]
In many countries censuses and demographic surveys do not separate atheists, agnostics and those responding "nothing in particular" as distinct populations.[15]: 60
Eleven countries have nonreligious majorities. In 2020, the countries with the highest percentage of "Non-Religious" ("Term encompassing both (a) agnostics; and (b) atheists") wereNorth Korea, theCzech Republic andEstonia.[43] According to the 2018 Chinese General Social Survey, the country had the largest count of unaffiliated people: about one billion adults.[44] Some boadly religious practices continue to play a significant role in the lives of a substantial shares of the Chinese population.[44]
Determining objective irreligion, as part of societal or individual levels ofsecularity and religiosity, requires a high degree ofcultural sensitivity fromresearchers. This is especially so outside theWestern world, where the concepts of "religious" and "secular" are not necessarily rooted in localculture or even exist.[4]: 31–34 "Cultural religion" is a vivid reality.[15]: 59 It must be taken into account when trying to ascertain the numeric strength of atheism and agnosticism in a country.[15]: 59 It is generally not considered more important than self-identification measures.[15]: 59 Non-religious people can be found in religious categories.[15]: 59 This is especially the case where religion has very deep-seated religious roots in a culture, such as with Christianity in Europe, Islam in the Middle East, Hinduism in India, and Buddhism in South-east Asia.[15]: 59 For instance,Scandinavian countries have among the highest measures of nonreligiosity and even atheism inEurope. For example, 58% of theSwedish population identify with theChurch of Sweden.[45] Yet, 47% of atheists who live in those countries are still formally members of the national churches.[46] In much ofEast Asia, ritual behavior holds greater salience than belief.[4]: 31 China hasstate atheism and is a Leninist religious state, which maintains dominance over all other religions.[1][23][24]: 1 About 85% of its population practice various kinds of religious behaviors with some regularity.[24]: 2 Many East Asians identify as "without religion" (wú zōngjiào in Chinese,mu shūkyō in Japanese,mu jong-gyo inKorean), but "religion" in that context refers only toBuddhism or Christianity. Most of the people "without religion" practiceShinto and otherfolk religions. In theMuslim world, those who claim to be "not religious" mostly imply not strictly observing Islam, and inIsrael, being "secular" means not strictly observingOrthodox Judaism. Vice versa, manyAmerican Jews share the worldviews of nonreligious people though affiliated with a Jewish denomination, and inRussia, growing identification withEastern Orthodoxy is mainly motivated by cultural and nationalist considerations, without much concrete belief.[47] In the United States, the majority of the "Nones", those without a religious affiliation, have belief in a god or higher power, spiritual forces beyond the natural world, and souls.[48] Even 23% of self-identified atheists believe in ahigher power, but not a god as described in the bible.[49]
In 2016,Zuckerman, Galen and Pasquale estimated there were 400 million nonreligious or nontheistic people.[19] In their 2013 essay, Ariela Keysar and Juhem Navarro-Rivera estimated there were about 450 to 500 million nonbelievers, including both "positive" and "negative" atheists, or approximately 7% of the world population.[50] These estimates come from theInternational Social Survey Programme 2008 survey in which 40 countries took part.[51] In 2010, the religiously unaffiliated numbered more than 1.1 billion (around 1,126,500,000 persons), about one-in-six people (16.3% of an estimated 6,9 billionworld population), according toPew Research Center.[22][17][18]: 24 : 25 In Pew reports, "unaffiliated" are atheists, agnostics, and people who checked "nothing in particular".[15]: 60 76% of them resided in one of the six regions:Asia-Pacific.[17][18]: 25 A 2012WIN/Gallup International report on a poll from 57 countries reported that 59% of the world's population identified as a religious person, 23% as not a religious person, 13% as "convinced atheists", and also a 9% decrease in identification as "religious" when compared to the 2005 average from 39 countries.[52] A 2015 WIN/Gallup International poll found that 63% of the globe identified as a religious person, 22% as not a religious person, and 11% as "convinced atheists".[53] Their 2016 survey found that 62% of the globe identified as a religious person, less than 25% as not a religious person, 9% others as "convinced atheists" and 5% others "Do not know/no response".[21] Keysar and Navarro-Rivera advised caution with these figures since other surveys have consistently reached lower figures for the number of atheists worldwide.[54]: 553 : 554
Inverse association betweenintelligence and religiosity, and the inverse correlation between intelligence andfertility might lead to a decline in non-religious identity (contra-secularization hypothesis) in the foreseeable future.[8][55]: 2 In 2007, sociologistPhil Zuckerman's global studies on atheism have indicated that global atheism may be in decline due to irreligious countries having the lowest birth rates in the world and religious countries having higher birth rates in general.[56] A Pew 2015 global projection study for religion and nonreligion, projected that between 2010 and 2050, there will be some initial increases of the unaffiliated followed by a decline by 2050.[57] Some theorists think religion will fade away but Pew reveals a more complicated picture.[10] Pew predicts the unaffiliated share of theworld population will decrease, at least for a while, from 16.4% to 13.2% by 2050.[58][10] Pew states that religious areas are experiencing the fastest growth because of higher fertility and younger populations.[10][59] By 2060, Pew says the number of unaffiliated will increase by over 35 million, but the overall population-percentage will decrease to 13% because the total population will grow faster.[60][61] This would be mostly because of relativelyold age andlow fertility rates in less religious societies such asEast Asia, particularlyChina andJapan, but alsoWestern Europe.[58][1] By 2019, 43 out of 49 countries studied continued to become less religious.[5]: 110 [6]
Relatively few unbelievers select ‘Atheist’ or ‘Agnostic’ as their preferred (non)religious or secular identity.[62]: 3 Being nonreligious is not necessarily equivalent to being an atheist or agnostic. Many of the nonreligious have some religious beliefs.[17][18]: 24 Also, some of the unaffiliated engage in certain kinds of religious practices.[17][18]: 24 For example, "belief in God or a higher power is shared by 7% of Chinese unaffiliated adults, 30% of French unaffiliated adults and 68% of unaffiliated U.S. adults.[17][18]: 24 Being unaffiliated with a religion on polls does not automatically mean objectively nonreligious since there are, for example, unaffiliated people who fall under religious measures, just as some unbelievers may still attend a church or other place of worship.[15][pages needed] Out of the global nonreligious population, 76.2% reside in Asia-Pacific, while the remainder reside inEurope (12%),North America (5.2%),Latin America and theCaribbean (4%),sub-Saharan Africa (2.4%) and theMiddle East andNorth Africa (0.2%).[17][18]: 24
The Pew Research Centre in the table below reflects "religiously unaffiliated" in 2010 which "include atheists, agnostics, and people who do not identify with any particular religion in surveys".
The Zuckerman data on the table below only reflect the number of people who have an absence of belief in a deity only (atheists, agnostics). These do not include the broader number of people who do not identify with a particular religion, such as deists, pantheists, and spiritual but not religious people.
Since 2007, there has been a surprising remarkably sharp trend away from religion.[6][5] From about 2007 to 2019, 43 out of 49 countries studied became less religious.[6] Past influential thinkers fromKarl Marx toMax Weber toÉmile Durkheim thought that the spread of scientific knowledge would dispel religion throughout the world.[5]: 112 Industrialization also didn't cause religion to disappear.[5]: 110 Political scientistsRonald Inglehart andPippa Norris argue faith is "more emotional than cognitive", and both advance an alternative thesis termed "existential security." They postulate that rather than knowledge or ignorance of scientific learning, it is the weakness or vulnerability of a society that determines religiosity. They claim that increased poverty and chaos make religious values more important to a society, while wealth and security diminish its role. As need for religious support diminishes, there is less willingness to "accept its constraints, including keeping women in the kitchen and gay people in the closet".[65]
Rates of people identifying as non-religious began rising in most societies at least as early as the turn of the 20th century.[66] In 1968, sociologist Glenn M. Vernon wrote thatUS census respondents who identified as "no religion" were insufficiently defined because they weredefined in terms of a negative. He contrasted the label with the term "independent" for political affiliation, which still includes people who participate incivic activities. He suggested this difficulty in definition was partially due to the dilemma of defining religious activity beyond membership, attendance, or other identification with a formal religious group.[66] During the 1970s, social scientists still tended to describe irreligion from a perspective that considered religion as normative for humans. Irreligion was described in terms of hostility, reactivity, or indifference toward religion, and or as developing from radical theologies.[67]
In a study of religious trends in 49 countries (they contained 60 percent of the world’s population) from 1981 to 2007, Inglehart and Norris found an overall, but not universal, increase in religiosity.[5]: 110 Respondents in 33 of 49 countries rated themselves higher on a scale from one to ten when asked how important God was in their lives. This increase occurred in most former communist and developing countries. Most high-income countries became less religious.[5]: 112 A sharp reversal of the global trend occurred from 2007 to 2019, when 43 out of 49 countries studied became less religious. This reversal appeared across most of the world.[5] The decline in belief was not confined tohigh-income countries and appeared across most of theworld.[6] In virtually every high-income country, religion has continued to decline.[5]: 112 At the same time, manypoor countries, together with most of the former communist states, have also become less religious.[5]: 112 From 2007 to 2019, only five countries became more religious, whereas the vast majority of the countries studied moved in the opposite direction.[5]: 112 India is the most important exception to the general pattern of decliningreligiosity.[5]: 112 The United States was a dramatic example of declining religiosity – with the mean rating of importance of religion dropping from 8.2 to 4.6 – while India was a major exception. Research in 1989 recorded disparities in religious adherence for different faith groups, with people from Christian and tribal traditions leaving religion at a greater rate than those from Muslim, Hindu, or Buddhist faiths.[68]
Inglehart and Norris speculate that the decline in religiosity comes from a decline in the social need for traditionalgender andsexual norms, ("virtually all world religions instilled" pro-fertility norms such as "producing as many children as possible and discourageddivorce,abortion,homosexuality,contraception, and anysexual behavior not linked toreproduction" in their adherents for centuries) aslife expectancy rose andinfant mortality dropped. They also argue that the idea that religion was necessary to prevent a collapse ofsocial cohesion andpublic morality was belied by lower levels ofcorruption andmurder in less religious countries. They argue that both of these trends are based on the theory that as societies develop, survival becomes more secure:starvation, once pervasive, becomes uncommon; life expectancy increases; murder and other forms ofviolence diminish. As this level of security rises, there is less social/economic need for the high birthrates that religion encourages and less emotional need for the comfort of religious belief.[5] Change in acceptance of "divorce, abortion, and homosexuality" has been measured by theWorld Values Survey and shown to have grown throughout the world outside ofMuslim-majority countries.[5] Several very comprehensive surveys in theMiddle East andIran have come to similar conclusions: there is an increase in secularization and growing calls for reforms in religious political institutions.[69]
^abcdefghijklm"Religiously Unaffiliated".The Global Religious Landscape: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Major Religious Groups as of 2010.Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion & Public Life. 18 December 2012. Archived fromthe original on 9 July 2024. Retrieved30 November 2024.
^abcdefghijklHackett, Conrad; Grim, Brian J. (December 2012)."Religiously Unaffiliated"(PDF).The Global Religious Landscape:A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Major Religious Groups as of 2010.Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion & Public Life. p. 82. Retrieved30 November 2024.
^ab"The Global Religious Landscape".The Global Religious Landscape: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Major Religious Groups as of 2010.Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion & Public Life. 18 December 2012.Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved4 November 2024.
^abcKuo, Cheng-tian (2017). "15. Sacred, Secular, and Neo-sacred Governments in China and Taiwan". In Zuckerman, Phil; Shook, John (eds.).The Oxford Handbook of Secularism. Oxford University Press.ISBN9780199988457. Retrieved22 December 2024.
^中华人民共和国宪法 (1978年) [People's Republic of China 1978 Constitution] (in Chinese). 1978.Archived from the original on 24 May 2021. Retrieved24 May 2021 – via Wikisource.
^"Svenska kyrkan i siffror".www.svenskakyrkan.se (in Swedish). 11 November 2024.Archived from the original on 1 November 2017. Retrieved30 November 2024.
^Zuckerman, Phil, ed. (2010). "Ch. 9 Atheism And Secularity: The Scandinavian Paradox".Atheism and Secularity Vol.2. Praeger. p. 191.ISBN978-0313351815.
^Zuckerman, Galen et al., "Secularity Around the World". pp. 30–32, 37–40, 44, 50–51.
^"Are all religiously unaffiliated adults in the US nonbelievers?".Pew Research Center. 24 January 2024. Archived fromthe original on 28 January 2024.Not all 'nones' are nonbelievers. Far from it. While the "nones" include many nonbelievers, 70% of "nones" say they believe in God or another higher power, and 63% say they believe in spiritual forces beyond the natural world...Roughly two-thirds of "nones" say they think humans have souls or spirits in addition to their physical bodies. This includes 60% of agnostics and 78% of U.S. adults whose religion is "nothing in particular." By comparison, 31% of atheists believe a person has a soul or spirit in addition to a body.
^Lipka, Michael; Tevington, Patricia; Starr, Kelsey (7 February 2024)."8 facts about Atheists".Pew Research Center. Archived fromthe original on 10 May 2024.About three-quarters of U.S. atheists (77%) do not believe in God or a higher power or in a spiritual force of any kind, according to our summer 2023 survey. At the same time, 23% say they do believe in a higher power of some kind.
^abVernon, Glenn M. (1968). "The Religious "Nones": A Neglected Category".Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion.7 (2):219–229.doi:10.2307/1384629.JSTOR1384629.
^Schumaker, John F. (1992).Religion and Mental Health. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 54.ISBN0-19-506985-4.
Eric Wright (2010).Irreligion: Thought, Rationale, History. BiblioBazaar.ISBN978-1-171-06863-1.
Dillon, Michele (2015). "Christian Affiliation and Disaffiliation in the United States: Generational and Cultural Change". InHunt, Stephen J. (ed.).Handbook of Global Contemporary Christianity: Themes and Developments in Culture, Politics, and Society. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 10.Leiden:Brill Publishers. pp. 346–365.doi:10.1163/9789004291027_019.ISBN978-90-04-26538-7.ISSN1874-6691.
Eller, Jack David (2010). "What Is Atheism?". InZuckerman, Phil (ed.).Atheism and Secularity. Volume 1: Issues, Concepts, Definitions. Santa Barbara, California: Praeger. pp. 1–18.ISBN978-0-313-35183-9.
Glasner, Peter E. (1977).The Sociology of Secularisation: A Critique of a Concept. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.ISBN978-0-7100-8455-2.
Iversen, Hans Raun (2013). "Secularization, Secularity, Secularism". In Runehov, Anne L. C.; Oviedo, Lluis (eds.).Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. pp. 2116–2121.doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_1024.ISBN978-1-4020-8265-8.
Josephson, Jason Ānanda (2012).The Invention of Religion in Japan. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.ISBN9780226412337.
^Depending on whether or not thespecial administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau and/orTaiwan are included in the population statistics of China. The table in the transcluded source excludes all three, referring to the population of Mainland China only.
