How an organism receives and responds to painful stimuli
Inphysiology,nociception (/ˌnəʊsɪˈsɛpʃ(ə)n/), alsonocioception; from Latin nocere'toharm/hurt') is thesensory nervous system's process of encodingnoxious stimuli. It deals with a series of events and processes required for an organism to receive apainful stimulus, convert it to a molecular signal, and recognize and characterize the signal to trigger an appropriate defensive response.
In nociception, intense chemical (e.g.,capsaicin present inchili pepper orcayenne pepper), mechanical (e.g., cutting, crushing), or thermal (heat and cold) stimulation ofsensory neurons callednociceptors produces a signal that travels along a chain ofnerve fibers to thebrain.[1] Nociception triggers a variety of physiological and behavioral responses to protect the organism against an aggression, and usually results in a subjective experience, orperception, of pain insentient beings.[2]
Potentially damaging mechanical, thermal, and chemical stimuli are detected by nerve endings called nociceptors, which are found in theskin, on internal surfaces such as theperiosteum,joint surfaces, and in some internalorgans. Some nociceptors are unspecializedfree nerve endings that have their cell bodies outside thespinal column in thedorsal-root ganglia.[3] Others are specialised structures in the skin such as nociceptiveschwann cells.[4] Nociceptors are categorized according to theaxons which travel from the receptors to thespinal cord or brain. After nerve injury it is possible for touch fibres that normally carry non-noxious stimuli to be perceived as noxious.[5]
Nociceptive pain consists of an adaptive alarm system.[6] Nociceptors have a certain threshold; that is, they require a minimum intensity of stimulation before they trigger a signal. Once this threshold is reached, a signal is passed along the axon of the neuron into the spinal cord.
Nociceptive threshold testing deliberately applies a noxious stimulus to a human or animal subject to study pain. In animals, the technique is often used to study the efficacy of analgesic drugs and to establish dosing levels and period of effect. After establishing a baseline, the drug under test is given and the elevation in threshold recorded at specified times. When the drug wears off, the threshold should return to the baseline (pretreatment) value. In some conditions, excitation of pain fibers becomes greater as the pain stimulus continues, leading to a condition calledhyperalgesia.
This diagram linearly (unless otherwise mentioned) tracks the projections of all known structures that allow for pain, proprioception, thermoception, and chemoception to their relevant endpoints in the human brain. Click to enlarge.
This overview discussesproprioception,thermoception, chemoception, and nociception, as they are all integrally connected.
Thermoception refers to stimuli of moderate temperatures 24–28 °C (75–82 °F), as anything beyond that range is considered pain and moderated by nociceptors. TRP and potassium channels [TRPM (1-8), TRPV (1-6), TRAAK, and TREK] each respond to different temperatures (among other stimuli), which create action potentials in nerves that join the mechano (touch) system in the posterolateral tract. Thermoception, like proprioception, is then covered by the somatosensory system.[8][9][10][11][12]
TRP channels that detect noxious stimuli (mechanical, thermal, and chemical pain) relay that information to nociceptors that generate an action potential. Mechanical TRP channels react to depression of their cells (like touch), thermal TRPs change shape in different temperatures, and chemical TRPs act liketaste buds, signalling if their receptors bond to certain elements/chemicals.
Lamina 2 makes upsubstantia gelatinosa of Rolando, unmyelinated spinal grey matter. Substantia receives input from nucleus proprius and conveys intense, poorly localized pain.
Lamina 1 primarily project to theparabrachial area andperiaqueductal grey, which begins the suppression of pain via neural and hormonal inhibition. Lamina 1 receive input from thermoreceptors via theposterolateral tract. Marginal nucleus of the spinal cord are the only unsuppressible pain signals.
Theparabrachial area integrates taste and pain info, then relays it. Parabrachial checks if the pain is being received in normal temperatures and if thegustatory system is active; if both are so the pain is assumed to be due to poison.
Ao fibers synapse on laminae 1 and 5 whileAb synapses on 1, 3, 5, and C.C fibers exclusively synapse on lamina 2.[13][14]
Theamygdala andhippocampus create and encode the memory and emotion due to pain stimuli.
Thehypothalamus signals for the release of hormones that make pain suppression more effective; some of these are sex hormones.
Superior colliculus receives IC's input, integrates visual orienting info, and uses the balance topographical map to orient the body to the pain stimuli.[18][19]
Inferior cerebellar peduncle integrates proprioceptive info and outputs to thevestibulocerebellum. The peduncle is not part of the lateral-spinothalamic-tract-pathway; the medulla receives the info and passes it onto the peduncle from elsewhere (seesomatosensory system).
Thethalamus is where pain is thought to be brought intoperception; it also aids in pain suppression and modulation, acting like abouncer, allowing certain intensities through to the cerebrum and rejecting others.[20]
Thesomatosensory cortex decodes nociceptor info to determine the exact location of pain and is where proprioception is brought into consciousness; inferior cerebellar peduncle is all unconscious proprioception.
Insula judges the intensity of the pain and provides the ability to imagine pain.[21][22]
Nociception has been documented in other animals, including fish[24] and a wide range ofinvertebrates,[25] including leeches,[26] nematode worms,[27] sea slugs,[28] and fruit flies.[29] As in mammals, nociceptive neurons in these species are typically characterized by responding preferentially to high temperature (40 °C or more), low pH, capsaicin, and tissue damage.
The term "nociception" was coined byCharles Scott Sherrington to distinguish the physiological process (nervous activity) from pain (a subjective experience).[30] It is derived from the Latin verbnocēre, which means "to harm".
^Portenoy, Russell K.; Brennan, Michael J. (1994)."Chronic Pain Management". In Good, David C.; Couch, James R. (eds.).Handbook of Neurorehabilitation. Informa Healthcare.ISBN978-0-8247-8822-3.Archived from the original on 2020-10-24. Retrieved2017-09-06.
^Purves, D. (2001)."Nociceptors". In Sunderland, MA. (ed.).Neuroscience. Sinauer Associates.Archived from the original on 2020-08-14. Retrieved2017-09-06.
^Feinstein, B.; Langton, J. N. K.; Jameson, R. M.; Schiller, F. (October 1954). "Experiments on pain referred from deep somatic tissues".The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery.36 (5):981–997.doi:10.2106/00004623-195436050-00007.PMID13211692.
^Brown, A. G. (2012).Organization in the Spinal Cord: The Anatomy and Physiology of Identified Neurones. Springer Science & Business Media.ISBN978-1-4471-1305-8.[page needed]
^Benevento, Louis A.; Standage, Gregg P. (1 July 1983). "The organization of projections of the retinorecipient and nonretinorecipient nuclei of the pretectal complex and layers of the superior colliculus to the lateral pulvinar and medial pulvinar in the macaque monkey".The Journal of Comparative Neurology.217 (3):307–336.doi:10.1002/cne.902170307.PMID6886056.S2CID44794002.
^Pastor, J.; Soria, B.; Belmonte, C. (1996). "Properties of the nociceptive neurons of the leech segmental ganglion".Journal of Neurophysiology.75 (6):2268–2279.doi:10.1152/jn.1996.75.6.2268.PMID8793740.
