Nearby areturquoise mines that have supplied the world with turquoise of the finest and the highest quality[13] for at least twomillennia.
The city was founded in the 3rd century byShapur I as a capital city ofSasaniansatrapy known asAbarshahr or Nishapur.[14] The city later became the capital ofTahirid dynasty and was reformed byAbdullah Tahir in 830, and later selected as the capital ofSeljuk dynasty byTughril in 1037. Nishapur had a territory of 17.6 hectares and 25,000 people in the 6th century, while by the year 1000, the population of the city was about 336,000 people with the territory of 1,680 hectares.[15] From theAbbasid era to theMongol invasion of Khwarezmia and Eastern Iran, the city evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual center within theIslamic world. Nishapur, along withMerv,Herat andBalkh, was one of the four great cities ofGreater Khorasan and one of the greatest cities of theOld World in theIslamic Golden Age with strategic importance,[16] a seat of governmental power in the eastern section ofcaliphates, adwelling place for diverse ethnic and religious groups and a trading stop on commercial routes fromTransoxiana, China, Iraq[17] and Egypt.
The modern city of Nishapur is composed of three main administrative areas/districts (Persian: منطقه های شهر نیشابور) and is surrounded by many villages which are joining in to the urban area and structure of the city. The Area/district 1 of the city comprises the newer urban developments (initiated mostly in the 1980s and the 1990s) made to the north of theRoad 44 and is home to most of the main higher educational institutions of Nishapur such as theUniversity of Neyshabur and theIAUN. The Area/district 2 of the city comprises the downtown of the city and the older and more historic urban structures situated on the south of the Road 44. It is home to some of the main tourist attractions of the city, such as theNational Garden of Nishapur and theKhanate Mansion of Amin Islami. The Area/district 3 of the city is home to the ruins and the remains of the ancient city of Nishapur, destroyed by the Mongols in the Middle Ages, and is located in the south and the southeast of the city. The third district of the city is a national and registered protected archeological area by law[20] and any unauthorized archeological excavation is considered illegal. This district is also home to the burial and historical monuments (some are shown on the city infobox) of most of the renowned persons of the city throughout history such as theMausoleum of Omar Khayyám[21] and theMausoleum of Attar of Nishapur. The third district is also used as one of the main tourist hotspots of the city.
Sasanian seal with inscription in Pahlavi"Perozhormizd, son of the Kanarang", "Kanarang" being the Sasanian military commander ofAbarshahr (Nishapur). The cap is decorated with a border of pearls. The title is attested from the 5th century CE. British Museum 134847.[26]
Abarshahr was a satrapy (province) of theSassanid Empire. Cities in the region were Candac, Artacauan, Apameia, andPushang (founded by Shapur I). Nishapur was the capital. Abarshar was the name used for Nishapur during theSassanid Empire andRashidun Caliphate. The capital was a vital center of administration and of communications between Bactria, India, and Sagistan. The region was involved in the Indian and Chinese trade. Its governor bore the title ofkanarang.[27]
Abarshahr orAparshahr was asatrapy (province) of theSassanid Empire now located in Nishapur. Cities in the region were Candac, Artacauan, Apameia, and Pushang (founded by Shapur I), and the capital was Nishapur. Abarshar was the name of Nishapur during theSassanid Empire and theRashidun Caliphate. The capital was a vital point of administration and of communications between Bactria, India, and Sagistan. The region was involved in the Indian and Chinese trade. Its governor bore the unique title ofkanarang.[27]
Nishapur was conquered by theRashidun Caliphate, without struggle, during the caliphate ofUmar.[when?] TheCaliph appointedAhnaf ibn Qais as the chief commander of theRashidun army out ofEsfahan. From Esfahan, two routes led toKhorasan: the main route viaRey and the other via Nishapur. The people of Nishapur chose not to fight and surrendered on the condition of paying a tribute.
Having conquered the region around Nishapur, the Muslim force advanced to Nishapur itself. The city was divided into four sectors, with each sector under a Persian chief. These chiefs shut themselves in the city and closed the gates. The Muslims laid siege to the city for some days. In the meantime, the Persian chiefs quarreled among themselves. One of the chiefs entered into negotiations with the Muslims. He offered to open one of the gates for the Muslim army to enter, provided he was granted immunity. The Muslims accepted the offer. The Persians were taken by surprise, and the Muslims became the new rulers of Nishapur.[when?] After consolidating their position at Nishapur, the Muslims conquered other cities around Nishapur, including Pusht, Ashband, Rukh, Zar, Khaf, Osparain, and Arghian.[28]
Abu Muslim became the governor ofKhorasan,[when?] and chose Nishapur as his capital. He seems to have initiated a huge building program in which he stimulated the growth of the city. Nishapur increased in importance, and two of the ‘Abbasids were governors of this city before becoming caliphs. It was the governor ofKhurasan (‘Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan) who presented the large gift ofChinese imperial porcelains toHarun al-Rashid (see Abbasid Ceramics Section), demonstrating the strategic importance of the province on trade routes.[29]
TheTahirid dynasty was a dynasty ofPersiandehqan origin that ruled from 820 to 872 inKhorasan, northeasternGreater Iran, a region now split betweenIran,Afghanistan,Tajikistan,Turkmenistan, andUzbekistan. The Tahirid capital was originallyMerv, but Nishapur became their capital from 828 to 845.[30] Although nominally subject to theAbbasidcaliphate inBaghdad, the Tahirid rulers were effectively independent. The dynasty was founded byTahir ibn Husayn, a leading general in the service of the Abbasid caliphAl-Ma'mun. Tahir's military victories were rewarded with the gift of lands in the east of Persia, which were subsequently extended by his successors as far as the borders ofIndia. Tahirid influence extended toBaghdad when the Abbasids granted them the military affairs inMesopotamia.[31]
In 873, the Tahirids were replaced by theSaffarids.[30] Saffarids expanded their sphere of influence through the north ofKhurasan and also in south towardsSistan. In late 875, the Saffarid amirYa'qub returned to Sistan, a former Tahirid soldier, Ahmad ibn Abdallah al-Khujistani removed the Saffarid governor and had the khutba recited, recognizing Tahirid authority.[32] According to theTarikh-i Bayhaq, written by Ibn Funduq, many of Nishapur'sulama were killed by al-Khujistani.[33] The Saffarids also made Nishapur their capital and rebuilt the Tahirid palace.[34] In 900, Ismail Samani defeated the Saffarids and was made governor of Nishapur.[30] The Samanids had been placed in power inTransoxiana by CaliphAl-Ma'mun, and ruled first fromSamarqand and then moved toBukhara. After defeating theSaffarids, their "empire", with nominal sanction from theAbbasids, extended fromIndia toIraq, making Nishapur a provincial capital.[35] Khurasan was thus an international entrepôt, with merchants coming not only from Iraq, India and Egypt, but also from Russia; additionally,Vikings came fromScandinavia to trade with theBulghars andKhazars on theCaspian Sea.[citation needed]
Nishapur occupies an important strategic position astride the oldSilk Road that linkedAnatolia and theMediterranean Sea with China. On the Silk Road, Nishapur has often defined the flexible frontier between the Iranian plateau and Central Asia. The town derived its name from its reputed founder, theSassanian kingShapur I, who is said to have established it in the third century CE. Nearby are theturquoise mines that supplied the world with turquoise for at least two millennia.
It became an important town in theGreater Khorasan region but subsequently declined in significance until a revival in its fortunes in the 9th century under theTahirid dynasty, when the glazedceramics of Nishapur formed an important item of trade to the west. For a time Nishapur rivaledBaghdad orCairo:Toghrül, the first ruler of theSeljuk dynasty, made Nishapur his residence in 1038 and proclaimed himself sultan there,[37] but it declined thereafter, as Seljuk fortunes were concentrated in the west. Nishapur was sacked by theOghuz Turks in 1154,[38] killing 30,000 people.[39] Nishapur suffered several earthquakes in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
In 1221, after the death ofTaghachar, the husband ofGenghis Khan's daughter, the entire city of Nishapur was destroyed by the Mongols over the course of 10 days. Genghis Khan's daughter requested the death of every resident of the city as vengeance for her husband's death. In order to be sure that no wounded would survive the massacre, the Khan's troops killed and beheaded most of the population of the city, and their skulls were reputedly piled in pyramids by theMongols. Women, Infants, children, and even cats and dogs were among the beheaded. It is estimated that potentially up to 1,747,000 people were slaughtered.[40]
After the massacre, a much smaller settlement was established just north of the ancient town, and the once bustling metropolis lay underground—until a team of excavators from theMetropolitan Museum of Art arrived in the mid-20th century. They worked at Nishapur between 1935 and 1940, returning for a final season in the winter of 1947–48.[22] What remains of old Nishapur is a 3500-hectare "Kohandejh (Persian: کهن دژ)" area, south of the current city of Nishapur.
After the fall of Nishapur in 1221 by the Mongols, the structures of the city were weakened and the agricultural output of the city was reduced.Mahmud Ghazan andAbu Sa'id Bahadur Khan tried to make the city flourish again and the city's population grew once more and some of the villages around the city were improved and rebuilt.Hamdallah Mustawfi had visited the city of Nishapur in the Year 1339 or 1340. During this era, the ambassador ofHenry III of Castile,Ruy González de Clavijo reached Nishapur and according to him,[41] Nishapur had become a highly productive agricultural center with 40 non-stop working mills along the ''Abe Bostan'' (Mir Ab River of Nishapur). The current position of the city was formed during this era and on the North West of the older position of the city which is now home to theMausoleum of Attar of Nishapur andShadiyakh Archeological Site and other remains of the old position of the city (the old position of the city is also now a protectedarcheological site by law though it is endangered).Mausoleum of Attar of Nishapur and theJame mosque of Nishapur (congregational mosque of the city) are among the examples of the buildings built during this era in Nishapur. Many poets, scholars, and renowned historical figures of the city and the wider region ofAbarshahr (one of the main four regions ofGreater Khorasan with the city capitals of Nishapur,Merv,Herat, andBalkh) were also born in this period.
The city was conquered in 1800 by theQajars. In 1828, the city came under the influence of theZafaranlu Confederacy but was given back to the Qajars in 1829.[42] During theRevolt of Hasan Khan Salar, the city was an isolated outpost of Qajar rule led by Imamverdi Khan Bayat when most of Khorasan was under the wrath of Hasan Khan Salar. On March 21, 1849, Qajar forces entered Nishapur.[42]
On February 18, 2004, in theNishapur train disaster, a train carrying flammable goods derailed and caught fire near the town. Five hours later, during firefighting and rescue work, a massive explosion destroyed the train and many nearby buildings. Around 300 people were said to have been killed, mainly fire and rescue workers, but also the local governor, mayor, and the heads of the fire and rail services.[43] This disaster has become known as one of the worst railway industry disasters of the world.
Littlearchaeology has been done on this vast and complicated site.George Curzon remarked that Nishapur had been destroyed and rebuilt more times than any other city in history,[44] an evocative statement, whether or not it is statistically true. TheMetropolitan Museum of Art undertook excavations from 1935 that were interrupted in 1940. Searching largely for museum-worthy trophies that they shared with the government of theShah, the Metropolitan's publications were limited to its own Nishapur ceramics. The site of Nishapur has been ransacked for half a century sinceWorld War II, to feed the international market demand for early Islamic works of art.
Shadiyakh ("Palace of Happiness") was one of the main palaces of old Nishapur up to the 9th century AD, which became more important and populated after that. Some notable people likeAttar lived there. Attar's tomb is nowadays in that area. This palace was perhaps completely ruined in the 13th century.
Most people speakPersian and aremonolingual; however, there are several private foreign language-teaching institutions in the city that teach English and other languages.[citation needed]
At the time of the 2006 National Census, the city's population was 205,972 in 56,652 households.[45] The following census in 2011 counted 239,185 people in 71,263 households.[46] The 2016 census measured the population of the city as 264,375 people in 83,143 households.[6] It is the third most-populous city in theeastern provinces of Iran afterMashhad andZahedan.
Nishapur is located at an elevation of 1250 meters on a wide fertileplain at the southwestern foot of theBinalud Mountain range in northcentralRazavi Khorasan Province. The city is connected by both railways and highways to the cities ofMashhad andTehran. The city also has local routes and highways to the cities ofKashmar andQuchan.
Throughout the Middle Ages, Nishapur had been praised by many due to its many gardens and its healthy climate inKhorasan.Ibn Hawqal has commented the following about the weather and the climate of this city at that time:
Throughout all ofKhorasan, no such companion as enriched with the health of the air, quantity, and the vastness of itsmansions can be found.[47][verification needed]
In the same cited work[47][verification needed],Hakim Nishapuri praises Nishapur with many favourable nicknames such as "Persian:نیشابورست، هوای او صافی به صحت آبدان وافی، خالی از خطایا و عاری از وبا و اکثر بلایا… عروس بلدان، خزانه خراسان، دار امارت، لطیف عمارت، موطن ادیبان…" and compares and claims that the weather and climate (or air Persian: هوا) of Nishapur was better and more healthier (according to him,cholera and other such diseases and disasters could not be found in Nishapur) than many neighboring regions such asSistan (due to its winds),Indus valley (or سند in Persian) andHindustan (due to their severe hotness),Khwarazm andTurkestan (due to their coldness) andMerv (due to presence of many insects).
A view ofBuzhan, a village and a tourist hot-spot near the east-north of the city of Nishapur, April 2019.
Nishapur generally has a warm and semi-dry climate called ''central Iranian plateau climate''. Precipitation mostly happens in spring and winter. Nishapur is situated on a relatively higher elevation (1250 meters) than its neighboring cities, such asSabzevar andMashhad, hence the weather is milder and better than these cities.[citation needed]
The city of Nishapur lies on aHolocene alluvial plain on top of thePleistocene sediments in the southwestern part of theBinalud Mountains. The Binalud Range, running northwest–southeast, is made predominantly ofTriassic andJurassic rocks. On the southern side of the northwestern part of the range, there is a section ofEocene rocks that arevolcanic in origin. The well-known Nishaburturquoise comes from the weathered and brokentrachytes andandesites of the Eocene volcanic rocks of this part of the mountain range. The main turquoise mines are situated about 50 kilometers northwest of the city of Nishapur in the foothills of the Binalud Range.[48]
Nishapur is located in a region with a rather high risk ofearthquakes. Many earthquakes have seriously harmed the city; among the important ones are the historical earthquakes that ruined the city in the 12th and 13th centuries.
The economy of Nishapur is diverse and it is based on several industries like Agriculture, Industrial parks, mining, tourism, health care, retailing, banking, etc.
Khorasan Steel Complex and two main industrial parks called theKhayyam Industrial Park and theAttar Industrial Park are near the city of Nishapur. Many industrial products such as sugar, cooking oils, and gas heaters are exported from the city and its county.
Several hotels,ecolodges, resorts, parks, tourist hot-spots, restaurants, museums, aplanetarium, cultural centers, mausoleums, religious pilgrimage sites, and historic mosques are in and near the city. The tourism industry of the city has a lot of potential, but it needs further development.
There are two active hospitals (Hakim Hospital and 22 Bahman Hospital) in the city of Nishapur, and a third one is currently[when?] under construction.
Road 44, a major national expressway that connects the two major cities ofTehran andMashhad, is connected to the city of Nishapur and it passes through it.
On 18 February 2004, runaway train wagons crashed into the village of Khayyam near Nishapur. This accident caused several major explosions and killed over 300. The entire village of Khayyam was destroyed due to the explosions.[citation needed]
The intercity bus terminal of the city is located in the eastern part of the city, close to theroad 44. Several public bus lines and stations are also active within the city.
Currently there is only one airport near the north of the city that is only authorized to be used forgliders and small aircraft however, there are plans for building a proper airport near the south of the city of Nishapur.[49]
Saadat Ali Khan I – (b. c. 1680 – d. 19 March 1739) was the Subahdar Nawab ofOudh. All the rulers ofOudh State in India belonged to a Shia Muslim dynasty of Persian origin from Nishapur. They were known for theirsecularism and broad outlook. After they rebelled against the British their state was annexed to form theUnited Provinces of Agra and Oudh.[50]
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Qadamgah, a city and aShia pilgrimage. It is historically part of the Greater Region of the city of Nishapur. It is now legally a separatecounty (Shahrestan), though its people have close ties and relatives with the main bigger city of Nishapur, which is geographically close to it.Qadamgah used to be a part of the administrativecounty of Nishapur.
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Nishapur has been of importance inIranian mythology. Before theIslamization of Iran,Zoroastrianism had been the major religion of Nishapur.[51]: 68 Rivand (one of the ancient names of Nishapur) has been mentioned inAvesta[52][53][54][55][56] and subsequently inShahnameh.Adur Burzen-Mihr a Zoroastrianfire temple of the highest grade was situated in Rivand Mountains (Binalud mountains) of Nishapur and the lake Rivand of Nishapur was built due to a fight betweenAhriman andwater (probably by water it was meantAnahita in the Persian text of the Persian wiki). Also, according toHakim Nishapuri,Dež-e Sɑngi was built bySeth on a giant round soft (flat) stone[57][verification needed] There are also signs of the influence ofChristianity in Nishapur (a street in Nishapur has been called and is still calledMasih and also a village on the south of the city was called Masih Abad). After therise of Islam however, the people living in and near the city of Neyshabur becameMuslims. Nishapur and its people have also had an influence onSufism (an Islamicmystic practice). Poets and Sufis such asAttar of Nishapur who had been born in this city had had a profound influence onIslamic mysticism. In the 10th century, Nishapur had been one of the centers ofIsmaili missionary spread in Iran and Greater Khorasan.[58] Most of the Ismailis of Nishapur now live inDizbad and some in the main city itself.[59]Jama'at KhanaDizbad is the most important Ismaili center in Nishapur today. From the third to the sixth of Hejri Ghamari, Nishapur was one of the centers ofSufism. Most Sufis and Sufi elders in Nishapur wereSunnis and followers of theShafi'i school.[60]
During the 10th century, Nishapur was a thriving economic center home to many religious scholars and artists. Nishapur was located along theSilk Road. An influential trade route connecting China to the Mediterranean Sea. It was a center for cotton, silk, textile and ceramic production. In efforts to uncover the history of life in this city, theMetropolitan Museum of Art put together an excavation team composed of researchers Joseph Upton, Walter Hauser and Charles Wilkinson. From 1935 to 1940, the team worked to rediscover the ancient city. They were authorized to work under the conditions that half of the material found must be shared with the Iran Bastan Museum in Tehran.[61] Along with pottery, excavators uncovered glass, metalwork, coins. and decorated wall fragments. Over the years of excavations, thousands of items were uncovered, which provided information on local artistic traditions.[62]
The most elaborate architectural excavation took place at the site called Tepe Madraseh. This massive complex had been thoughtfully planned and embellished with many decorative elements. Plaster panels had been carved and painted, along with walls, brickwork, and glazed ceramic tiles. A madraseh is a place for religious learning. Such sites have piqued the interest of scholars for centuries for their function and architectural designs. Like most Islamic architecture, the entire complex of Tepe Madaseh was oriented to faceMecca. The bricks used to construct most of the structures had been dried in the kilns located on the outskirts of the complex.[63]
Nishapur during theIslamic Golden Age, especially the 9th and 10th centuries, was one of the great centers ofpottery and related arts.[64] Most of the Ceramic artifacts discovered in Nishapur are preserved in theMetropolitan Museum of Art and Museums in Nishapur,Tehran andMashhad. Ceramics produced at Nishapur showed links withSassanid art andCentral Asian.[65] Nowadays there are 4 Pottery workshops in Nishapur.[66]
Bowls including bold black inscriptions in the so-calledKufic angular calligraphy were apparently produced in the important ceramic centers of Nishapur ineastern Iran, and Afrasiyab, or Old Samarqand, in present-dayUzbekistan. The text often contains a proverb in Arabic or, as in this case, a series of wishes: "Blessing, happiness, prosperity, good health, and success."
"Although the decoration of pottery may only tell us a little about the people who used it, the form of a vessel is directly related to its function".[62] The Pottery of Nishapur incorporated strong coloredslips and bold patterns. Common decorations included geometric and vegetal patterns, calligraphy, figures, and animals.[61] The ceramic pieces uncovered at Nishapur consisted mainly of vessels and utilitarian wares. Objects such as plates, bowls, bottles, jars, pitchers, coin banks, and even a toy hen were found. One decorative technique specifically utilized by Nishapur potters was the refined use of chattering, a rippled texture achieved when trimming a vessel on the wheel.[62] Thepolychrome ware of Nishapur indicates the significant advances inglaze technology that were being discovered during the 10th century. It also indicates how an object'saesthetic became an important part of the piece as a whole.[67]
A selection of these discoveries is shown in the gallery below:
Cup with votive inscriptions inKufic script. Terracotta, slipped decoration on slip, underglaze painted. 10th-11th century, Nishapur.Metropolitan Museum of Art
The special Anthem of Nishapur was unveiled for the first time on April 14, 2011;[68] it has an introduction and three parts, noted on three invasive and destructive events in the history of Nishapur, delineated by frightening sounds of bells, along with sounds of percussion and wailing women represent the miseries caused by these attacks.[69][70]
Throughout history, music in Nishapur has been influenced bySassanid,Maqami andtraditional styles and is a part of the Khorasani Folk Music that has been popular in Nishapur.[71][72] Following the UNESCO World Register of Maqami Music in Northern Khorasan, research on music in Nishapur has been considered. Maghami music festivals have been also active in Nishapur. One of the oldest study sources related to Iranian music is Resal-e Neyshaburi (in Persian:رساله نیشابور) written byMohammad bin Mahmoud of Nishapur, which highlights the importance of music in old Nishapur.[73][74] Among the influential people of Nishapur in musicRatebe Neyshaburi (during the reign ofTahirids), and the contemporaryParviz Meshkatian can be named.
The most important foods and drinks in Nishapur arerhubarb andsharbat. Rhubarb (Persianrivaas orrivand'), a sour vegetable, grows at the foot of the eponymousRivand Mountains (Mount Binalud). Soft drinks made from the stems of the plant, such assharbate rivaas (شربت ریواس) andkhoshaabe rivaas (خوشاب ریواس), are sold at some Nishapur resorts. ''Aush Komay'' is also a localAush made from a vegetable called ''کمای''.Haleem of Neyshabur is also popular in the region along with other commonIranian foods and drinks.
For at least 2,000 years, Iran, known before asPersia, has remained an important source of turquoise, which was named by Iranians initially "pirouzeh" meaning "victory" and later after Arab invasion "firouzeh".[citation needed] As an important source of turquoise, Nishapur has been sometimes referred to as the "city of turquoise" throughout history.[citation needed] In Iranian architecture, the blue turquoise was used to cover the domes of the Iranian palaces because its intense blue color was also a symbol of heaven on earth.[citation needed]
This deposit, which is blue naturally, and turns green when heated due to dehydration, is restricted to a mine-riddled region in Nishapur, the 2,012-metre (6,601 ft) mountain peak ofAli-mersai, which is tens of kilometers fromMashhad, the capital ofKhorasan province,Iran. Nishapur's turquoise has been sold as souvenirs and jewelry in Nishapur and Mashhad. A weathered and brokentrachyte is host to the turquoise, which is found bothin situ between layers of limonite and sandstone, and amongst thescree at the mountain's base. These workings, together with those of theSinai Peninsula, are the oldest known.
Enghelab Sports Complex is an indoor arena in Nishapur. The arena houses Nishapur's basketball, volleyball, andfutsal teams. Nishapur has one professional football team, Jahan Electric Nishapur, that competes in theRazavi Khorasan's Provincial Leagues.
General publications in Nishapur include the weekly and local newspapers. The first local newspaper ofKhorasan province isMorning of Nishapur, published since 1989. Others includeShadiakh, published since 2000,Khayyam Nameh, since 2004,Nasim, since 2006, andFar reh Simorgh, since 2010.[78]
^Alsoromanized asNeyshapur,Nišâpur, andNişapur.[7] "Nishapur" is closer to its original and historic meaning, though it is less commonly used by modern native Persian speakers. InPersian poetry, the name of the city is written and pronounced as "نِشابور" (without the usage of "پ" or "ب"). In modern times and among the general public and the Persian mass media, "نیشابور" is the most commonly used pronunciation and spelling of the city, though "نیشاپور" is also correct. Officially (نیشابور), romanized asNeyshabur;[8] also romanized asNīshābūr,[7] fromMiddle Persian:𐭭𐭩𐭥𐭱𐭧𐭯𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭩, meaning "The New City ofShapur" or "The Fair Shapur"[9]
^Originally inAvesta, though some regions near the West of the city are now called Reyvand (ریوند) which is directly derived from "Raēvant". Source: رنبغ دادگی (۱۳۹۰)، بندهش ترجمهٔ گزارنده مهرداد بهار، تهران: انتشارات توس، ص. ص۱۷۲
^abNishapur can be found atGEOnet Names Server, atthis link, by opening the Advanced Search box, entering "-3076915" in the "Unique Feature Id" form, and clicking on "Search Database".
^Honigmann, E.; Bosworth, C.E.. "Nīs̲h̲āpūr." Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Brill Online, 2013. Reference. 31 December 2013
^Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980).Natural Wonders of the World. United States of America:Trusted Media Brands. p. 271.ISBN0-89577-087-3.
^اعتضادی، لادن (۱۳۷۴). «نیشابور (ابرشهر)؛ سیر تحول و اصول ساخت و سازمان شهری».مجموعه مقالات کنگره تاریخ معماری و شهرسازی ایران.اول. تهران: سازمان میراث فرهنگی کشور
^زنگنه، «شهرستان نیشابور و مهمترین وقایع تاریخی آن»، مشکوة، ۱۴۷.
Bosworth, C.E. (1975). "The Tahirids and the Saffarids". In Frye, R.N. (ed.).The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 4: The Period from the Arab invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge University Press. pp. 90–135.ISBN0-521-20093-8.
Esposito, John L., ed. (1999).The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press.
Honigmann, E.; Bosworth, C.E. (1995). "Nishapur". In Bosworth, C.E.; Van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P.; Lecomte, G. (eds.).The Encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. VIII: Ned-Sam. Brill. pp. 62–64.ISBN90-04-09834-8.
Ibn Al-Athir (2007).The Chronicle of Ibn Al-Athir for the Crusading Period from Al-Kamil Fi'l-Tarikh. Translated by Richards, D.S. Ashgate Publishing.
Kröger, Jens (1995).Nishapur: Glass of the Early Islamic Period. The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Peacock, A.C.S. (2015).The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press.
Tor, D.G. (2015). "The Importance of Khurasan and Transoxiana in the Persianate Dynastic Period (850-1220)". In Peacock, A. C. S.; Tor, D. G. (eds.).Medieval Central Asia and the Persianate World: Iranian Tradition and Islamic Civilisation. I.B. Tauris. pp. 1–12.
Ardavan Ruzbeh,When National Heritage is not an equal to the Emām-Jom'eh, a reportage on the demolition of a national monument,Madreseh-ye Golshan (مدرسه گلشن), in Nishabur, inPersian, Radio Zamāneh, May 29, 2008:Text,Audio.
Hossein Davoudi,Dizbād: A Staircase to History, in Persian, Jadid Online, 2008. A Slide Show of Dizbād, by Hossein Davoudi, Jadid Online, 2008, (5 min 39 sec). (Note: Dizbād is a small village betweenMashhad and Neyshābūr, located at some 40 km distance from Mashhad.)
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