Following the spread of Islam to the region, Niger was on the fringes of some states, including theKanem–Bornu Empire and theMali Empire before more significant parts of its territory became included in states such as theSultanate of Agadez and theSonghai Empire. It was colonized by France during theScramble for Africa as part ofFrench West Africa, becoming adistinct colony in 1922. Since obtaining independence in 1960, Niger has experienced five coups d'état and four periods ofmilitary rule. Niger's seventh and most recent constitution was enacted in 2010, establishing a multiparty, unitary semi-presidential system. Following the most recentcoup in 2023, the country has been ruled byNational Council for the Safeguard of the Homeland, a military junta.
TheHausa are the country's largest ethnic group, making up more than half the population.Hausa is the country's official and the most spoken language; ten indigenous languages have the status ofnational language. According to the UN's Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) report of 2023, Niger is one of the poorest countries in the world.[16] Some non-desert portions of the country undergo periodic drought anddesertification. Theeconomy is concentrated aroundsubsistence agriculture, with some export agriculture in the less arid south, and the export ofraw materials, includinguranium ore. It faces challenges to development due to its landlocked position, desert terrain, lowliteracy rate,jihadist insurgencies, and the world's highestfertility rates due tobirth control not being used and the resulting rapidpopulation growth.[17]
Etymology
The name comes from theNiger River which flows through the west of the country. The origin of the river's name is uncertain. Alexandrian geographerPtolemy wrote descriptions of thewadiGir (in neighbouring modernAlgeria) and theNi-Gir'Lower Gir' to the south, possibly referring to the Niger River.[18] The modern spellingNiger was first recorded byBerber scholarLeo Africanus in 1550,[19] possibly derived from theTuareg phrase the(e)gărăw-n-gărăwăn meaning'river of rivers'.[20] There is broad consensus among linguists that it does not derive from the Latinniger'black' as was first erroneously believed.[18] The standard pronunciation in English is/niːˈʒɛər/, while in some Anglophone media/ˈnaɪdʒər/ is also used.
Rock engraving showing herds of giraffe,ibex, and other animals in the southern Sahara near Tiguidit, Niger
Stone tools, some dating as far back as 280,000 BC, have been found inAdrar Bous,Bilma andDjado in the northernAgadez Region.[21] Some of these finds have been linked with theAterian andMousterian tool cultures of theMiddle Paleolithic period, which flourished in northern Africa circa 90,000 BC–20,000 BC.[22][21] It is thought that these humans lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle.[21] During the prehistoricAfrican humid period, the climate of theSahara was wetter and more fertile, a phenomenon archaeologists refer to as the "Green Sahara", which provided "favourable" conditions for hunting and later agriculture and livestock herding.[23][24]
TheNeolithic era, beginning circa 10,000 BC, saw a number of changes such as the introduction ofpottery (as evidenced at Tagalagal, Temet and Tin Ouffadene), the spread of cattle husbandry, and the burying of the dead in stonetumuli.[21] As the climate changed in the period 4000–2800 BC the Sahara gradually begandrying out, forcing a change in settlement patterns to the south and east.[25] Agriculture spread, including the planting ofmillet andsorghum, and pottery production.[21] Iron and copper items appear in this era, with finds including those atAzawagh,Takedda,Marendet and theTermit Massif.[26][27][28] TheKiffian (circa 8000–6000 BC) and laterTenerian (circa 5000–2500 BC) cultures, centred onAdrar Bous andGobero where skeletons have been uncovered, flourished during this period.[29][30][31][32][33]
Societies continued to grow with regional differentiation in agricultural and funerary practices. A culture of this period is theBura culture (circa 200–1300 AD) named for theBura archaeological site where a burial replete with iron and ceramic statuettes were discovered.[34] The Neolithic era saw the flourishing of Saharan rock art, including in theAïr Mountains, Termit Massif, Djado Plateau, Iwelene, Arakao, Tamakon, Tzerzait,Iferouane, Mammanet andDabous; the art spans the period from 10,000 BC to 100 AD and depicts a range of subjects, from the varied fauna of the landscape to depictions of spear-carrying figures dubbed 'Libyan warriors'.[35][36][37]
Archaeological evidence has indicated that themegalithic monuments in the Saharan region of Niger and the Eastern Sahara which developed, as early as 4700 BCE, may have served as antecedents for themastabas and pyramids ofancient Egypt.[38]
Empires and kingdoms in pre-colonial Niger
By at least the 5th century BC the territory of what is now Niger had become an area of trans-Saharan trade. Led byTuareg tribes from the north, camels were used as a means of transportation through what is later a desert.[39][40] This mobility which would continue in waves for centuries was accompanied with further migration to the south and intermixing between sub-Saharan African and North African populations, and the spread ofIslam.[41] It was aided by theMuslim conquest of the Maghreb in the 7th century, the result of three Arab invasions, which resulted in population movements to the south.[25] Empires and kingdoms existed in the Sahel during this era.
The Mali Empire was aMandinka empire founded bySundiata Keita (r. 1230–1255) inc. 1230 and existed until the 1600s. As detailed in theEpic of Sundiata, Mali emerged as a breakaway region of theSosso Empire which itself had split from the earlierGhana Empire. Thereafter Mali defeated the Sosso at theBattle of Kirina in 1235 and then Ghana in 1240.[42][43] From its heartland around the later Guinea-Mali border region, the empire expanded under successive kings and came to dominate the Trans-Saharan trade routes, reaching its greatest extent during the rule ofMansa Musa (r. 1312–1337).[citation needed] At this point parts of what are now Niger'sTillabéri Region fell under Malian rule.[42] A Muslim, Mansa Musa performed thehajj in 1324–25 and encouraged the spread ofIslam in the empire, and it "appears that most ordinary citizens continued to maintain their traditional animist beliefs instead of or alongside the new religion".[42][44] The empire began "declining" in the 15th century due to a combination of internecine strife over the royal succession, weak kings, the shift of European trade routes to the coast, and rebellions in the empire's periphery byMossi,Wolof,Tuareg andSonghai peoples.[44] A rump Mali kingdom continued to exist until the 1600s.[citation needed]
Map of the Songhai Empire, overlaid over modern boundaries
The Songhai Empire was named for its main ethnic group, theSonghai or Sonrai, and was centred on the bend of theNiger River inMali. Songhai began settling this region from the 7th to 9th centuries;[citation needed] by the 11th centuryGao (capital of the formerKingdom of Gao) had become the empire's capital.[45][46] From 1000 to 1325, the Songhai Empire managed to maintain peace with the Mali Empire, its neighbour to the west. In 1325 Songhai was conquered by Mali until regaining its independence in 1375.[citation needed] Under kingSonni Ali (r. 1464–1492) Songhai adopted an expansionist policy which reached its apogee during the reign ofAskia Mohammad I (r. 1493–1528); at this point the empire had expanded from its Niger-bend heartland, including to the east where most of later western Niger fell under its rule, includingAgadez which was conquered in 1496.[21][47][48] The empire was unable to withstand repeated attacks from theSaadi dynasty ofMorocco and was decisively defeated at theBattle of Tondibi in 1591; it then collapsed into a number of smaller kingdoms.[46]
Inc. 1449 in the north of what is now Niger, the Sultanate of Aïr was founded by Sultan Ilisawan, based inAgadez.[21] Formerly a trading post inhabited by a mixture of Hausa and Tuaregs, it grew as a strategic position on the Trans-Saharan trade routes. In 1515, Aïr was conquered by Songhai, remaining a part of that empire until its collapse in 1591.[21][41] In the following centuries, it "seems that the sultanate entered a decline" marked by internecine wars and clan conflicts.[41] When Europeans began exploring the region in the 19th century, most of Agadez lay in ruins and was taken over by the French.[21][41]
To the east, theKanem–Bornu Empire dominated the region aroundLake Chad for a period.[46] It was founded by theZaghawa around the 8th century and based inNjimi, north-east of the lake. The kingdom gradually expanded, including during the rule of theSayfawa dynasty which began inc. 1075 underMai (king)Hummay.[49][50] The kingdom reached its greatest extent in the 1200s, partly due to the effort ofMaiDunama Dibbalemi (r. 1210–1259), and grew "richer" from its control of some Trans-Saharan trade routes; most of eastern and south-eastern Niger, includingBilma andKaouar, was under Kanem's control in this period.[51] Islam had been introduced to the kingdom by Arab traders from the 11th century, gaining more converts over the following centuries.[49] Attacks by theBulala people in the 14th century forced Kanem to shift westwards of Lake Chad where it became known as the Bornu Empire ruled from its capitalNgazargamu on what is later theNiger-Nigeria border.[52][49][53] Bornu "prospered" during the rule ofMaiIdris Alooma (r. circa 1575–1610) and re-conquered most of the "traditional lands" of Kanem, hence the designation 'Kanem–Bornu' for the empire. By the 17th century and into the 18th the Bornu kingdom had entered a "period of decline", shrinking back to its Lake Chad heartland.[46][49]
Circa 1730–40 a group ofKanuri settlers led by Mallam Yunus left Kanem and founded theSultanate of Damagaram, centred on the town ofZinder.[41] The sultanate remained nominally subject to theBorno Empire until the reign of Sultan Tanimoune Dan Souleymane in the 19th century, who declared independence and initiated a phase of expansion.[21] The sultanate managed to resist the advance of the Sokoto Caliphate (see below), and was later captured by the French in 1899.[21]
Hausa states and other smaller kingdoms (1400s–1800s)
Overlooking the town ofZinder and the Sultan's Palace from the French fort (1906). The arrival of the French spelled an end for precolonial states like theSultanate of Damagaram which carried on only as ceremonial "chiefs" appointed by the colonial government.
Between the Niger River and Lake Chad lay Hausa Kingdoms, encompassing the cultural-linguistic area known asHausaland which straddles what later became theNiger-Nigeria border.[54] The Hausa are thought to be a mixture of autochthonous peoples and migrant peoples from the north and east, emerging as a distinct people sometime in the 900s–1400s when the kingdoms were founded.[54][21][55] They gradually adopted Islam from the 14th century, and sometimes this existed alongside other religions, developing into syncretic forms; some Hausa groups such as the Azna resisted Islam altogether (the area ofDogondoutchi remains an animist stronghold).[21][46] The Hausa kingdoms were not a compact entity but several federations of kingdoms more or less independent of one other. Their organisation was hierarchical and somewhat democratic: the Hausa kings were elected by the notables of the country and could be removed by them.[45] The Hausa Kingdoms began as seven states founded, according to theBayajidda legend, by the six sons of Bawo.[54][46] Bawo was the only son of the Hausa queenDaurama andBayajidda or (Abu Yazid according to certain historians) who came fromBaghdad. The seven original Hausa states (also referred to as the 'Hausa bakwai') were:Daura (state of queenDaurama),Kano,Rano,Zaria,Gobir,Katsina andBiram.[45][21][55] An extension of the legend states that Bawo had a further seven sons with a concubine, who went on to found the so-called 'Banza (illegitimate) Bakwai':Zamfara,Kebbi,Nupe,Gwari,Yauri,Ilorin andKwararafa.[55] A smaller state not fitting into this scheme wasKonni, centred onBirni-N'Konni.[41]
Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913
TheFulani, a pastoral people found throughout the Sahel, began migrating to Hausaland during the 1200s–1500s.[46][54] During the later 18th century some Fulani were unhappy with the syncretic form of Islam practised there; exploiting also the populace's disdain with corruption amongst the Hausa elite, the Fulani scholarUsman Dan Fodio (from Gobir) declared ajihad in 1804.[41][21][56] After conquering most of Hausaland (though not the Bornu Kingdom, which remained independent), he proclaimed theSokoto Caliphate in 1809.[54] Some of the Hausa states survived by fleeing south, such as the Katsina who moved toMaradi in the south of what later became Niger.[46] Some of these surviving states harassed the Caliphate and a period of wars and skirmishes commenced, with some states (such as Katsina and Gobir) maintaining independence whereas elsewhere newer ones were formed (such as theSultanate of Tessaoua). The Caliphate managed to survive until, "fatally weakened" by the invasions of Chad-based warlordRabih az-Zubayr, it finally fell to the British in 1903, with its lands later being partitioned between Britain and France.[57]
Other smaller kingdoms of the period include the Dosso Kingdom, aZarma polity founded in 1750, which resisted the rule of Hausa and Sokoto states.[41]
Some European countries already possessed coastal colonies in Africa, and in the latter half of the century they began to turn their eyes towards the interior of the continent. This process, known as the 'Scramble for Africa', culminated in the1885 Berlin conference in which the colonial powers outlined the division of Africa into spheres of influence. As a result of this,France gained control of the upper valley of theNiger River (roughly equivalent to the present territory ofMali and Niger).[58] France then set about making a reality of their rule on the ground. In 1897, the French officerMarius Gabriel Cazemajou was sent to Niger. He reached theSultanate of Damagaram in 1898, and stayed inZinder at the court of Sultan Amadou Kouran Daga. He was later killed, as Daga feared he would ally with the Chad-based warlord Rabih az-Zubayr.[41] In 1899–1900, France coordinated three expeditions—theGentil Mission fromFrench Congo, theFoureau-Lamy Mission fromAlgeria and theVoulet–Chanoine Mission fromTimbuktu—with the aim of linking France's African possessions.[58] The three eventually met atKousséri (in the far north ofCameroon) and defeated Rabih az-Zubayr's forces at theBattle of Kousséri. The Voulet-Chanoine Mission was "marred by atrocities", and "became notorious" for pillaging, looting, raping and killing local civilians on its passage throughout southern Niger.[41][21] On 8 May 1899, in retaliation for the resistance of queenSarraounia, captain Voulet and his men murdered all the inhabitants of the village ofBirni-N'Konni in what is regarded as "one of the worst massacres in French colonial history".[41] The "brutal" methods of Voulet and Chanoine caused a "scandal" and Paris was forced to intervene; when Lieutenant-ColonelJean-François Klobb caught up with the mission nearTessaoua to relieve them of command he was killed. Lt.Paul Joalland, Klobb's former officer, and Lt.Octave Meynier eventually took over the mission following a mutiny in which Voulet and Chanoine were killed.[21]The Military Territory of Niger was subsequently created within theUpper Senegal and Niger colony (later Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger) in December 1904 with its capital atNiamey.[21] Theborder with Britain's colony of Nigeria to the south was finalised in 1910, a rough delimitation having already been agreed by the two powers via treaties during the period 1898–1906.[58] The capital of the territory was moved to Zinder in 1912 when the Niger Military Territory was split off from Upper Senegal and Niger, before being moved back to Niamey in 1922 when Niger became a fully fledged colony withinFrench West Africa.[21][41] The borders of Niger were drawn up in stages and had been fixed at their later position by the 1930s. Territorial adjustments took place in this period: the areas west of the Niger river wereattached to Niger in 1926–1927, and during the dissolution of Upper Volta (modern Burkina Faso) in 1932–1947 most of the east of that territory was added to Niger;[59][41] and in the east theTibesti Mountains weretransferred to Chad in 1931.[60]
The French generally adopted a form of indirect rule, allowing existing native structures to continue to exist within the colonial framework of governance providing that they acknowledged French supremacy.[21] The Zarma of the Dosso Kingdom in particular proved amenable to French rule, using them as allies against the encroachments of Hausa and other nearby states; over time the Zarma thus became one of the "more educated and westernised" groups in Niger.[41] Perceived threats to French rule, such as the Kobkitanda rebellion inDosso Region (1905–1906), led by the blind cleric Alfa Saibou, and the Karma revolt in the Niger valley (December 1905 – March 1906) led by Oumarou Karma were suppressed with force, as were the latterHamallayya andHauka religious movements.[21][41][61] While "largely successful" in subduing the "sedentary" populations of the south, the French faced "considerably more difficulty" with the Tuareg in the north (centered on the Sultanate of Aïr in Agadez), and France was unable to occupy Agadez until 1906.[21] Tuareg resistance continued, culminating in theKaocen revolt of 1916–1917, led byAg Mohammed Wau Teguidda Kaocen, with backing from theSenussi inFezzan; the revolt was violently suppressed and Kaocen fled to Fezzan where he was later killed.[41] A puppet sultan was set up by the French and the "decline and marginalisation" of the north of the colony continued, exacerbated by a series of droughts.[41] While it remained "something of a backwater", some limited economic development took place in Niger during the colonial years, such as the introduction ofgroundnut cultivation.[21] Measures to improve food security following a series of devastating famines in 1913, 1920, and 1931 were introduced.[21][41]
During theSecond World War, during which time mainland France was occupied byNazi Germany,Charles de Gaulle issued the Brazzaville Declaration, declaring that the French colonial empire would be replaced post-war with a less centralisedFrench Union.[62] The French Union, which lasted from 1946 to 1958, conferred a limited form of French citizenship on the inhabitants of the colonies, with some decentralisation of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies. It was during this period that theNigerien Progressive Party (Parti Progressiste Nigérien, or PPN, originally a branch of the African Democratic Rally, orRassemblement Démocratique Africain – RDA) was formed under the leadership of former teacherHamani Diori, as was the left-wingMouvement Socialiste Africain-Sawaba (MSA), led byDjibo Bakary. Following the Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) of 23 July 1956 and the establishment of theFifth French Republic on 4 December 1958, Niger became an autonomous state within theFrench Community. On 18 December 1958, an autonomous Republic of Niger was officially created under the leadership of Hamani Diori. MSA was banned in 1959 for its perceived excessive anti-French stance.[63] On 11 July 1960, Niger decided to leave the French Community and acquired full independence at midnight, local time, on 3 August 1960;[64] Diori thus became the firstpresident of the country.
Post-colonial (1960–)
Diori years (1960–1974)
PresidentHamani Diori and visitingGerman PresidentHeinrich Lübke greet crowds on a state visit to Niamey, 1969. Diori's single party rule was characterised by "good" relations with the West and a preoccupation with foreign affairs.
For its first 14 years as an independent state, Niger was run by a single-party civilian regime under the presidency of Hamani Diori.[65] The 1960s saw an expansion of the education system and some limited economic development and industrialisation.[41] Links with France remained, with Diori allowing the development of French-leduranium mining inArlit and supporting France in theAlgerian War.[41] Relations with other African states were mostly "positive", with the exception ofDahomey (Benin), owing to aborder dispute. Niger remained a one-party state throughout this period, with Diori surviving a planned coup in 1963 and an assassination attempt in 1965; most of this activity was masterminded by Djibo Bakary's MSA-Sawaba group which had launched an abortive rebellion in 1964.[41][66] In the 1970s, a combination of economic difficulties,droughts and accusations of rampant corruption and mismanagement of food supplies resulted in acoup d'état that overthrew the Diori regime.
First military regime (1974–1991)
The coup had been masterminded by Col.Seyni Kountché and a military group under the name of theConseil Militaire Supreme, with Kountché going on to rule the country until his death in 1987.[41] The first action of the military government was to address the food crisis.[67] Whilst political prisoners of the Diori regime were released after the coup, political and individual freedoms in general deteriorated during this period. There were attempted coups (in 1975, 1976 and 1984) which were thwarted, their instigators being punished.[41]
Kountché sought to create a 'development society', funded mostly by the uranium mines inAgadez Region.[41]Parastatal companies were created, infrastructure (building and new roads, schools, health centres) constructed, and there was corruption in government agencies, which Kountché did not hesitate to punish.[68] In the 1980s, Kountché began cautiously loosening the grip of the military, with some relaxation of state censorship and attempts made to 'civilianise' the regime.[41] The economic boom ended following the collapse in uranium prices, andIMF-led austerity and privatisation measures provoked opposition by some Nigeriens.[41] In 1985, a Tuareg revolt inTchintabaraden was suppressed.[41] Kountché died in November 1987 from a brain tumour, and was succeeded by his chief of staff, Col.Ali Saibou who was confirmed as Chief of the Supreme Military Council four days later.[41]
Saibou curtailed the most repressive aspects of the Kountché era (such as the secret police and media censorship), and set about introducing a process of political reform under the overall direction of a single party (theMouvement National pour la Société du Développement, or MNSD).[41] A Second Republic was declared and a new constitution was drawn up, which was adopted following areferendum in 1989.[41] General Saibou became the first president of the Second Republic after winning thepresidential election on 10 December 1989.[69]
President Saibou's efforts to control political reforms failed in the face of trade union and student demands to institute amulti-party democratic system. On 9 February 1990, a violently repressed student march in Niamey led to the death of three students, which led to increased national and international pressure for further democratic reform.[41] The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990.[41] Meanwhile, trouble re-emerged in Agadez Region when a group of armed Tuaregs attacked the town of Tchintabaraden (seen by some as the start of the firstTuareg Rebellion), prompting a military crackdown which led to deaths (the precise numbers are disputed, with estimates ranging from 70 to up to 1,000).[41]
Ali Saibou, President 1987–93, helped oversee the transition from military to civilian rule.
National Conference and Third Republic (1991–1996)
The National Sovereign Conference of 1991 brought about multi-party democracy. From 29 July to 3 November, a national conference gathered together all elements of society to make recommendations for the future direction of the country. The conference was presided over by Prof.André Salifou and developed a plan for atransitional government; this was then installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put into place in April 1993. After the National Sovereign Conference, the transitional government drafted a constitution that eliminated the previous single-party system of the 1989 Constitution and guaranteed more freedoms. The new constitution was adopted by areferendum on 26 December 1992.[70] Following this, presidentialelections were held andMahamane Ousmane became the first president of the Third Republic on 27 March 1993.[41][69] Ousmane's presidency saw four government changes and legislativeelections in 1995, and an economic slump.[41]
The violence in Agadez Region continued during this period, prompting the Nigerien government to sign a truce with Tuareg rebels in 1992 which was ineffective owing to internal dissension within the Tuareg ranks.[41] Another rebellion, led by dissatisfiedToubou peoples claiming that, like the Tuareg, the Nigerien government had neglected their region, broke out in the east of the country.[41] In April 1995 a peace deal with a Tuareg rebel group was signed, with the government agreeing to absorb some former rebels into the military and, with French assistance, help others return to a productive civilian life.[71]
Second and third military regimes (1996–1999)
The governmental paralysis prompted the military to intervene; on 27 January 1996, Col.Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara led acoup that deposed President Ousmane and ended the Third Republic.[72][73] Maïnassara headed aConseil de Salut National (National Salvation Council) composed of military officials which carried out a six-month transition period, during which a constitution was drafted and adopted on 12 May 1996.[41]
Presidential campaigns were organised in the months that followed. Maïnassara entered the campaign as an independent candidate and won theelection on 8 July 1996, the elections were viewed nationally and internationally by some as irregular, as the electoral commission was replaced during the campaign.[41] Meanwhile, Maïnassara instigated anIMF andWorld Bank-approved privatisation programme which enriched some of his supporters and were opposed by the trade unions.[41] Following fraudulent local elections in 1999 the opposition ceased any cooperation with the Maïnassara regime.[41] In unknown circumstances (possibly attempting to flee the country), Maïnassara was assassinated atNiamey Airport on 9 April 1999.[74][75]
Maj.Daouda Malam Wanké then took over, establishing a transitional National Reconciliation Council to oversee the drafting of a constitution with a French-stylesemi-presidential system. This was adopted on 9 August 1999 and was followed by presidential and legislativeelections in October and November of the same year.[76] The elections were generally found to be free and fair by international observers. Wanké then withdrew from governmental affairs.[41]
Fifth Republic (1999–2009)
ATuareg rebel fighter in northern Niger during the Second Tuareg Rebellion, 2008
After winning the election in November 1999, PresidentTandja Mamadou was sworn into office on 22 December 1999 as the first president of the Fifth Republic. Mamadou brought about administrative and economic reforms that had been halted due to the military coups since the Third Republic, and helped peacefully resolve a decades-long boundary dispute with Benin.[77][78] In August 2002, unrest within military camps occurred inNiamey,Diffa, andNguigmi, and the government was able to restore order within days. On 24 July 2004, municipal elections were held to elect local representatives, previously appointed by the government. These elections were followed by presidential elections, in which Mamadou was re-elected for a second term, thus becoming the first president of the republic to win consecutive elections without being deposed by military coups.[41][79] The legislative and executive configuration remained somewhat similar to that of the first term of the president:Hama Amadou was reappointed as prime minister andMahamane Ousmane, the head of the CDS party, was re-elected as the president of the National Assembly (parliament) by his peers.
By 2007, the relationship between President Tandja Mamadou and his prime minister had "deteriorated", leading to the replacement of the latter in June 2007 bySeyni Oumarou following a successful vote of no confidence at the Assembly.[41] President Tandja Mamadou sought to extend his presidency by modifying the constitution which limited presidential terms. Proponents of the extended presidency, who rallied behind the 'Tazartche' (Hausa for 'overstay') movement, were countered by opponents ('anti-Tazartche') composed of opposition party militants and civil society activists.[41]
Sixth republic and fourth military regime (2009–2010)
In 2009, President Tandja Mamadou decided to organize a constitutional referendum seeking toextend his presidency, which was opposed by other political parties, and went against the decision of the Constitutional Court which had ruled that the referendum would be unconstitutional. Mamadou then modified and adopted a new constitution by referendum, which was declared illegal by the Constitutional Court, prompting Mamadou to dissolve the Court and assume emergency powers.[80][81] The opposition boycotted the referendum and the constitution was adopted with 92.5% of voters and a 68% turnout, according to official results. The adoption of the constitution created a Sixth Republic, with apresidential system, the suspension of the 1999 Constitution, and a three-year interim government with Tandja Mamadou as president. The events generated political and social unrest.[41]
In acoup d'état in February 2010, a military junta led bySalou Djibo was established in response to Tandja's attempted extension of his political term.[82] TheSupreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy, headed by Djibo, carried out a one-year transition plan, drafted a constitution and held elections in 2011.
Following the adoption of a constitution in 2010 andpresidential elections a year later,Mahamadou Issoufou was elected as the first president of the Seventh Republic; he was thenre-elected in 2016.[41][83] The constitution restored the semi-presidential system which had been abolished a year earlier. An attempted coup against him in 2011 was thwarted and its ringleaders arrested.[84] Issoufou's time in office was marked by threats to the country's security, stemming from the fallout from theLibyan Civil War andNorthern Mali conflict,an insurgency in western Niger byal-Qaeda andIslamic State, the spillover of Nigeria'sBoko Haram insurgency into south-eastern Niger, and the use of Niger as a transit country for migrants (often organised bypeople-smugglinggangs).[85] French and American forces assisted Niger in countering these threats.[86]
On 10 December 2019, a large group of fighters belonging to theIslamic State in the Greater Sahara (IS-GS)attacked a military post inInates,[87] killing over seventysoldiers and kidnapping others.[88] The attack was the deadliest single incident Niger's military has ever experienced.[89] On 9 January 2020, a large group of IS-GS militantsassaulted a Nigerien military base at Chinagodrar, in Niger'sTillabéri Region, killing at least 89 Nigerien soldiers.[90]
On 27 December 2020, Nigerienswent to the polls after Issoufou announced he would step down, paving the way to apeaceful transition of power.[91] No candidate won an absolute majority in the vote:Mohamed Bazoum came closest with 39.33%. Per the constitution, a run-off election was held on 20 February 2021, with Bazoum taking 55.75% of the vote and opposition candidate (and former president)Mahamane Ousmane taking 44.25%, according to the electoral commission.[92]
On 31 March 2021, Niger's security forces thwarted anattempted coup by a military unit in the capital,Niamey. Gunfire was heard in the presidential palace. The attack took place two days before newly elected presidentMohamed Bazoum was due to be sworn into office. The Presidential Guard arrested some people during the incident.[95] On 2 April 2021, Bazoum was sworn in as thePresident of Niger.[96]
The coup was condemned by ECOWAS, which in the2023 Nigerien crisis threatened to use military intervention to reinstate the government of Bazoum if the coup leaders did not by 6 August.[100] The deadline passed without military intervention, though ECOWAS imposed sanctions, including cuts of Nigerian energy exports to Niger which had previously provided 70–90% of Niger's power.[101][102] In November 2023 the coup-led governments of Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger formed theAlliance of Sahel States in opposition to potential military intervention.[103] On 24 February 2024 several ECOWAS sanctions against Niger were dropped, reportedly for humanitarian and diplomatic reasons,[104] and Nigeria agreed to resume electricity exports to Niger.[104][101]
In the buildup to the August ECOWAS deadline, the junta requested help from the RussianWagner Group,[105] though Wagner mercenaries were not known to have entered the country as a result.[citation needed] In October the junta expelled French troops from the country, presenting the move as a step towards sovereignty from the former colonial power,[106] and in December it suspended cooperation with theFrancophonie alleging its promotion of French interests.[107] UN resident coordinatorLouise Aubin was also expelled in October after the junta alleged "underhanded maneuvers" by UN secretary-general António Guterres to prevent the country's participation in the UN General Assembly.[106] In October the U.S. officially designated the takeover as a coup, suspending most Niger–U.S. military cooperation as well as hundreds of millions of dollars of foreign assistance programs.[108] In April 2024, Russian military trainers and equipment began to arrive in Niger under a new military agreement,[109] and the U.S. agreed to withdraw troops from Niger[110] following the termination of a Niger–U.S. agreement that had allowed US personnel to be stationed in the country.[111]
Niger lies between latitudes11° and24°N, and longitudes0° and16°E. Its area is 1.267 million km2 (489,191 mi2) of which 300 square kilometres (116 sq mi) is water. This makes it less than twice the size ofFrance, and the world's 21st-largest country.[112]
Niger borders seven countries and has a total perimeter of 5,697 kilometres (3,540 mi). The longest border is withNigeria to the south (1,497 km or 930 mi). This is followed byChad to the east, at 1,175 km (730 mi),Algeria to the north-north-west (956 km or 594 mi), andMali at 821 km (510 mi). Niger has borders in its further south-west withBurkina Faso at 628 kilometres (390 mi) andBenin at 266 km (165 mi) and to the north-north-eastLibya at 354 km (220 mi).
The hotter and drier climate withindesert areas causes more frequent fires in some regions.[113] In the south, there is a tropical climate on the edges of the Niger River basin.
The north is covered by deserts and semi-deserts. The typical mammal fauna consists ofaddax antelopes,scimitar-horned oryx, gazelles, and in the mountains, Barbary sheep. TheAïr and Ténéré National Nature Reserve was founded in the northern parts to protect these species.
The southern parts are naturally dominated savannahs. TheW National Park, situated in the bordering area to Burkina Faso andBenin, belongs to "one of the most important areas" for wildlife in Western Africa, which is called the WAP (W–Arli–Pendjari) Complex. It has a population of theWest African lion and one of the last populations of theNorthwest African cheetah.
Environmental issues include destructive farming practices as a result of population pressure, illegal hunting, bush fires in some areas and human encroachment upon the flood plains of the Niger River for paddy cultivation. Dams constructed on the Niger River in the neighboring countries of Mali and Guinea and within Niger are cited as a reason for a reduction of water flow in the Niger River—which has a direct effect upon the environment. A "lack of adequate staff" to guard wildlife in the parks and reserves is another factor cited for loss of wildlife.[115]
Niger pursues a moderate foreign policy and maintains friendly relations with the West and the Islamic world as well as non-aligned countries. It belongs to the UN and its main specialized agencies and in 1980–81 served on theUN Security Council. Niger maintains a special relationship with former colonial power France and has close relations with its West African neighbors.
Soldiers from the 322nd Parachute Regiment practice field tactics with the U.S. Army, 2007.
The Niger Armed Forces (Forces armées nigériennes) are the military and paramilitary forces of Niger, under the president as supreme commander. They consist of the Niger Army (Armée de Terre), the Niger Air Force (Armée de l'Air) and the auxiliary paramilitary forces, such as theNational Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie nationale) and theNational Guard (Garde nationale). Both paramilitary forces are trained in military fashion and have some military responsibilities in wartime. In peace time their duties are mostly policing duties.
The armed forces are composed of approximately 12,900 personnel, including 3,700gendarmes, 3,200national guards, 300 air force personnel, and 6,000 army personnel. The armed forces of Niger have been involved in several military coups over the years with themost recent in 2023.[125] Niger's armed forces have a long history of military cooperation with France and the United States. From 2013, Niamey was home to a U.S. drone base. On 16 March 2024, Niger's government announced that it was breaking off "with immediate effect" its military cooperation agreement with the United States.[126]
The current Judiciary of Niger was established with the creation of the Fourth Republic in 1999. The constitution of December 1992 was revised by national referendum on 12 May 1996 and, again, by referendum, revised to the current version on 18 July 1999. It is based on theCode Napoleon "Inquisitorial system", established in Niger during French colonial rule and the 1960 Constitution of Niger. The Court of Appeals reviews questions of fact and law, while the Supreme Court reviews application of the law and constitutional questions. The High Court of Justice (HCJ) deals with cases involving senior government officials. The justice system also includes civil criminal courts, customary courts, traditional mediation, and a military court.[127] The military court provides the same rights as civil criminal courts; however, customary courts do not. The military court cannot try civilians.[128]
Government finance is derived from revenue exports (mining, oil and agricultural exports) as well as various forms of taxes collected by the government. In the past, foreign aid has contributed to large percentages of the budget. In 2013, Niger's government has adopted a zero-deficit budget of 1.279 trillion CFA francs ($2.53 billion) which is claimed to balance revenues and expenditures by an 11% reduction in the budget from the previous year.[129]
The 2014 budget was 1.867 trillion CFA which is distributed as follows according to: public debt (76,703,692,000 CFA), personnel expenditures (210,979,633,960 CFA), operating expenditures (128,988,777,711 CFA); subsidies and transfers (308,379,641,366 CFA) and investment (1,142,513,658,712 CFA).[130]
Other principal donors include the United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Canada, andSaudi Arabia.[citation needed] WhileUSAID does not have an office in Niger, the United States is a major donor, contributing nearly $10 million each year to Niger's development.[citation needed] The U.S. also is a major partner in policy coordination in such areas as food security and HIV/AIDS.[citation needed]
Niger is divided into 7regions and one capital district. These regions are subdivided into 36departments. The 36 departments are currently broken down into communes of varying types. As of 2006[update] there were 265 communes, including communes urbaines (Urban Communes: as subdivisions of major cities), communes rurales (Rural Communes), in sparsely populated areas and postes administratifs (Administrative Posts) for largely uninhabited desert areas or military zones.
Rural communes may contain official villages and settlements, while urban communes are divided into quarters. Niger subvisions were renamed in 2002, in the implementation of a decentralisation project, first begun in 1998. Previously, Niger was divided into 7 departments, 36 arrondissements, and communes. These subdivisions were administered by officials appointed by the national government. These offices will be replaced in the future by democratically elected councils at each level.
Thepre-2002 departments (renamed as regions) and capital district are:
The economy of Niger centers on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largesturanium deposits. In 2021, Niger was the main supplier of uranium to the EU, followed by Kazakhstan and Russia.[132] Drought cycles, desertification, a 2.9% population growth rate, and the drop in world demand for uranium have undercut the economy.
Two trans-African automobile routes pass through Niger:
In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund program forHeavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and concluded an agreement with the Fund forPoverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). Debt relief provided under the enhanced HIPC initiative significantly reduces Niger's annual debt service obligations, freeing funds for expenditures on basic health care, primary education, HIV/AIDS prevention, rural infrastructure, and other programs geared at poverty reduction.
In December 2005, it was announced that Niger had received 100% multilateraldebt relief from theIMF, which translates into the forgiveness of approximately US$86 million in debts to the IMF, excluding the remaining assistance under HIPC. Nearly half of the government's budget is derived from foreign donor resources. Future growth may be sustained by the exploitation of oil, gold, coal, and other mineral resources. Uranium prices have recovered somewhat in the last few years.[when?] A drought and locust infestation in 2005 led to food shortages for as many as 2.5 million Nigeriens between March and August 2005.[134]
In June 2025 it was reported that Niger's military leaders plan to take control of Somaïr, auranium company mostly owned by France. They accuse the company of "irresponsible acts." Since taking power in 2023, Niger's leaders have wanted more control over the country's resources and have distanced themselves from France, moving closer to Russia. Niger is a major uranium producer with high-quality ores.[137]
As of 2021[update], the population of Niger was 25,252,722.[14][15] Niger's population has rapidly increased from its population of 3.4 million in 1960 and has a current growth rate of 3.3% (7.1 children per mother).[138][139]
This growth rate is one of the highest in the world and is a source of concern for the government and international agencies.[140] The population is predominantly young, with 49.2% under 15 years old and 2.7% over 65 years, and predominantly rural with only 21% living in urban areas.[138]
As in most West African countries, Niger has a wide variety of ethnic groups. The ethnic makeup of Niger in 2001 was as follows:Hausa (55.4%),Zarma &Songhay (21%),Tuareg (9.3%),Fula (French:Peuls;Fula:Fulɓe) (8.5%),Kanuri Manga (4.7%),Tubu (0.4%),Arab (0.4%),Gourmantche (0.4%), other (0.1%).[138] TheZarma andSonghay dominate the Dosso, Tillabéri, and Niamey regions, theHausa dominate the Zinder, Maradi, and Tahoua regions,Kanuri Manga dominate the Diffa region, andTuaregs dominate the Agadez region in Northern Niger.[145]
French, inherited from the colonial period, was theofficial language until 2025, whenHausa replaced its status.[1] It is taught in school as a second language and serves as the administrative language. Niger joined theOrganisation Internationale de la Francophonie in 1970,[citation needed] though it suspended cooperation with the group months after the 2023 coup.[107]
Niger is asecular country andseparation of state and religion is guaranteed by Articles 3 and 175 of the 2010 Constitution, which dictate that future amendments or revisions may not modify the secular nature of the republic of Niger.Religious freedom is protected by Article 30 of the same constitution.Islam, widespread in the region since the 10th century, has greatly shaped the culture and mores of the people of Niger. Islam is the most dominant religion, practiced by 99.3% of the population according to the 2012 census.[4]
The other two main religions of Niger areChristianity, practiced by 0.3% of the population, and Animism (traditional indigenous religious beliefs), practiced by 0.2% of the population.[4] Christianity was established later in the region by missionaries during the French colonial years. Other urban Christianexpatriate communities from Europe and West Africa are also present.Religious persecution has flared in recent years in Niger; Christian charity Open Doors now lists Niger as the 37th-most difficult country in which to be a Christian on theirWorld Watch List, 'reflecting how pressure is increasing on Christians in this [...] nation.'[148] Relations between Muslims and Christians have generally been cordial, according to the respective representatives of Christian and Muslim groups in Niger.[149]
The numbers of Animist practitioners are a point of contention. As recently as the late 19th century, much of the south center of the nation was unreached by Islam, and the conversion of some rural areas has been only partial. There are still areas where animist based festivals and traditions (such as theBori religion) are practiced bysyncretic Muslim communities (in some Hausa areas as well as among someToubou andWodaabe pastoralists), as opposed to several small communities who maintain their pre-Islamic religion. These include the Hausa-speakingMaouri (orAzna, the Hausa word for "pagan") community inDogondoutci in the south-south-west and theKanuri-speaking Manga nearZinder, both of whom practice variations of the pre-Islamic HausaMaguzawa religion. There are also some tiny Boudouma and Songhay animist communities in the south-west.[150] Over the past decade, syncretic practices have become less common among Muslim Nigerien communities.[149]
BothZarma andHausa areas were greatly influenced by the 18th- and 19th-centuryFula-ledSufi brotherhoods, most notably theSokoto Caliphate (in today's Nigeria). Modern Muslim practice in Niger is often tied to theTijaniyaSufibrotherhoods, although there are small minority groups tied toHammallism andNyassist Sufi orders in the west, and theSanusiya in the far north-east.[150]
A small center of followers ofSalafi movement within Sunni Islam have appeared in the last thirty years, in the capital and inMaradi.[153] These small groups, linked to similar groups inJos, Nigeria, came to public prominence in the 1990s during a series of religious riots.[154][155]
Despite this, Niger maintains a tradition as asecular state, protected by law.[156] Interfaith relations are deemed very good, and the forms of Islam traditionally practiced in most of the country are marked by tolerance of other faiths and lack of restrictions on personal freedom.[157] Alcohol, such as the locally produced Bière Niger, is sold openly in most of the country.
Theliteracy rate of Niger is estimated to be 35.6% (47.9% male and 25.7% female) according to theCIA,[158] and 38% (46% male and 30% female) according to theWorld Bank, both as of 2022.[159] Primary education in Niger is compulsory for six years.[160] The primary school enrollment and attendance rates are low, particularly for girls.[160] In 1997, the gross primary enrollment rate was 29.3 percent, and in 1996, the net primary enrollment rate was 24.5 percent.[160]
About 60 percent of children who finish primary schools are boys, as the majority of girls rarely attend school for more than a few years.[160] Children are often forced to work rather than attend school, particularly during planting orharvest periods.[160]Nomadic children in the north of the country often do not have access to schools.[160]
The child mortality rate in Niger (deaths among children between the ages of 1 and 4) is high (248 per 1,000) due to generally poor health conditions and inadequate nutrition for most of the country's children. According to the organizationSave the Children, Niger has the world's highestinfant mortality rate.[161]
Maradi Reference Hospital
Niger also has the highestfertility rate in the world (6.49 births per woman according to 2017 estimates);[162] this has resulted in nearly half (49.7%) of the Nigerien population being under age 15 in 2020.[163] Niger has the 11th highestmaternal mortality rate in the world at 820 deaths/100,000 live births.[164] There were 3 physicians and 22 nurses per 100,000 persons in 2006.[165]
Clean drinking water is scarce by global standards, with significant differences between urban and rural areas. Niger is located at the bottom of theUN Human Development Index. Roughly 92% of the population lives in rural areas in the Tillabéri region along the western frontier, and there is a chronic scarcity of clean water, particularly during the hot season, when temperatures regularly exceed 40 degrees Celsius.[166][167][168]
Just 40% of the 30,000 inhabitants inTéra, a city north-west of the country's capital of Niamey and near to the Burkina Faso border, have access to a working public water infrastructure.[166][169][170] Société de Patrimoine des Eaux du Niger (SPEN), Niger's water authority, opened ten boreholes and built a water treatment plant in 2018 to provide potable water toTéra and the surrounding areas. The water supply ran out about a year later, and the water treatment facility was forced to close.[166][171]
With the help of a donation fund from theDutch government, theEuropean Investment Bank is collaborating with the Niger water authority to find solutions to Niger's water issues. TheWorld Bank identified Niger as one of the 18 fragile regions ofSub-Saharan Africa. The EU bank has a history of investing in regions like these.[172]
The European Investment Bank and the Niger Water Authority are looking at two options for dealing with Téra's water shortages. The first choice is to repair the water tank on the outskirts of town. Another choice is to treat and transport water from the Niger River, which is located more than 100 kilometres to the east. Villages between Téra and theNiger River will also have access to sewage. The European Investment Bank will also look at renewable energy as a way to save costs.[172]
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Niger ranks 121st out of 127 countries with sufficient data. Niger's score of 34.1 indicates a serious level of hunger.[173]
Sultan of Damagaram in theHausa city ofZinder. The Sultanate continues to operate in a ceremonial function into the 21st century.Toubou musicians at a formal ceremony
Nigerien culture is marked by variation, evidence of the cultural crossroads whichFrench colonialism formed into a unified state from the beginning of the 20th century. What is now Niger was created from four distinct cultural areas in the pre-colonial era: theZarma andSonghai dominated theNiger River valley in the south-west; the northern periphery ofHausaland, made mostly of those states which had resisted theSokoto Caliphate, and ranged along the long southern border with Nigeria; theLake Chad basin andKaouar in the far east, populated byKanuri farmers andToubou pastoralists who had once been part of theKanem–Bornu Empire; and theTuareg nomads of theAïr Mountains and the Sahara in the vast north.
Each of these communities, along with smaller ethnic groups, brought their own cultural traditions to the new state of Niger. While successive post-independence governments have tried to forge a shared national culture, this has been slow forming, in part because the major Nigerien communities have their own cultural histories, and in part because Nigerien ethnic groups such as theHausa, Tuareg and Kanuri are but part of larger ethnic communities which cross borders introduced under colonialism.[citation needed]
Until the 1990s, government and politics was inordinately dominated byNiamey and theZarma people of the surrounding region. At the same time the plurality of the population, in the Hausa borderlands betweenBirni-N'Konni andMaine-Soroa, have often looked culturally more to Hausaland in Nigeria than Niamey. Between 1996 and 2003, primary school attendance was around 30%,[175] including 36% of males and only 25% of females. Additional education occurs throughmadrasas.
Participants in theGuérewol perform theGuérewol dance, 1997.
The Guérewol festival is a traditional Wodaabe cultural event that takes place inAbalak inTahoua region orIn'Gall inAgadez Region. It is an annual traditional courtship ritual practiced by the Wodaabe (Fula) people of Niger. During this ceremony, young men dressed in elaborate ornamentation and made up in traditional face painting gather in lines to dance and sing, vying for the attention of marriageable young women. The Guérewol festival is an international attraction and was featured in films and magazines as prominent as theNational Geographic.
"La Cure salée" (English: Salt Cure) is a yearly festival of Tuareg and Wodaabe nomads inIn'Gall inAgadez Region traditionally to celebrate the end of the rainy season. For three days, the festival features a parade ofTuareg camel riders followed with camel and horse races, songs, dances, and storytelling.
Niger began developing diverse media in the late 1990s. Prior to the Third Republic, Nigeriens only had access to tightly controlled state media.[176] Now Niamey contains scores of newspapers and magazines; some, likeLe Sahel, are government operated, while many are critical of the government.[177][178] Radio is the most important medium, as television sets are beyond the buying power of many of the rural poor, and illiteracy prevents print media from becoming a mass medium.[115]
In addition to the national and regional radio services of the state broadcasterORTN, there are four privately owned radio networks which total more than 100 stations. Three of them—theAnfani Group, Sarounia and Tenere—are urban-based commercial-formatFM networks in the major towns.[179] There is also a network of over 80 community radio stations spread across all seven regions of the country, governed by the Comité de Pilotage de Radios de Proximité (CPRP), a civil society organisation. The independent-sector radio networks are collectively estimated by CPRP officials to cover some 7.6 million people, or about 73% of the population (2005).
Aside from Nigerien radio stations, theBBC's Hausa service is listened to on FM repeaters across wide parts of the country, particularly in the south, close to the border with Nigeria.Radio France Internationale also rebroadcasts in French through some of the commercial stations, via satellite. Tenere FM also runs a national independent television station of the same name.[179]
Despite relative freedom at the national level, Nigerienjournalists say they are often pressured by local authorities.[180] The state ORTN network depends financially on the government, partly through a surcharge on electricity bills, and partly through direct subsidy. The sector is governed by theConseil Supérieur de Communications, established as an independent body in the early 1990s, since 2007 headed byDaouda Diallo. International human rights groups have criticised the government since at least 1996 as using regulation and police to punish criticism of the state.[181][182]
^Hunwick, John O. (2003) [1999].Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents. Leiden: Brill. p. 275 Fn 22.ISBN978-90-04-11207-0.
^Dibble, Harold L.; Aldeias, Vera; Jacobs, Zenobia; Olszewski, Deborah I.; Rezek, Zeljko; Lin, Sam C.; Alvarez-Fernández, Esteban; Barshay-Szmidt, Carolyn C.; Hallett-Desguez, Emily (1 March 2013). "On the industrial attributions of the Aterian and Mousterian of the Maghreb".Journal of Human Evolution.64 (3):194–210.Bibcode:2013JHumE..64..194D.doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.10.010.PMID23399349.
^Oliver, Roland (1999),The African Experience: From Olduvai Gorge to the 21st Century (Series: History of Civilization), London:Phoenix Press, revised edition, pg 39.
^Duncan E. Miller and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Early Metal Working in Sub Saharan Africa' Journal of African History 35 (1994) 1–36; Minze Stuiver and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa' Current Anthropology 1968.
^Clark, J. Desmond; Gifford-Gonzalez, Diane (2008).Adrar Bous: archaeology of a central Saharan granitic ring complex in Niger. Royal Museum of Central Africa, Tervuren.
^Centre, UNESCO World Heritage."Site archéologique de Bura".UNESCO World Heritage Centre.Archived from the original on 10 December 2019. Retrieved7 April 2020.
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^Shillington, Kevin (1989, 1995).History of Africa, Second Edition. St. Martin's Press, New York. Page 32.
^ p.17 - "DuringPredynastic Egypt, tumuli were present at various locations (e.g.,Naqada,Helwan). The appearance of megalithic monumental tombs and tumuli in the Nigerian Sahara as early as 4700 BC, and presumably much earlier in the Eastern Sahara (Wendorf et al., 1992/3), clearly predates the construction of Egyptian mastabas and pyramids by a very long time. Such structures might have been the precursors of Egyptian pyramids and monumental architecture. It is noteworthy that tumuli appear in Egypt in several localities, such as at Nagada and Helwan, during Predynastic times (Hassan, 1988)."Hassan, F. A. (2002)."Palaeoclimate, Food and Culture Change in Africa: An Overview".Droughts, Food and Culture: Ecological Change and Food Security in Africa’s Later Prehistory. Springer US:11–26.doi:10.1007/0-306-47547-2_2.
^Lewicki, T. (1994). "The Role of the Sahara and Saharians in Relationships between North and South". InUNESCO General History of Africa: Volume 3. University of California Press,ISBN92-3-601709-6.
^abcdCartwright, Mark (23 April 2019)."Kingdom of Kanem". World History Encyclopedia.Archived from the original on 8 May 2019. Retrieved13 November 2019.
^Ryder, A.F.C. (1981). D.T. Niane (ed.).General History of Africa: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Paris: UNESCO. p. 239.
^Ryder, A.F.C. (1981). D.T. Niane (ed.).General History of Africa: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Paris: UNESCO. pp. 251–52.
^Ryder, A.F.C. (1981). D.T. Niane (ed.).General History of Africa: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Paris: UNESCO. pp. 258–65.
^Nehemia Levtzion; Randall Pouwels.The History of Islam in Africa. Ohio University Press. p. 81.
^abcdeCartwright, Mark (9 May 2019)."Hausaland". World History Encyclopedia.Archived from the original on 26 December 2019. Retrieved13 November 2019.
^H. J. Fisher. The Sahara and Central Sudan. in The Cambridge History of Africa: From C 1600 to C 179. Richard Gray, J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver, eds. Cambridge University Press, (1975)ISBN0-521-20413-5 pp. 134–6
^Falola, Toyin (2009).Colonialism and Violence in Nigeria. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
^UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. VIII: Africa Since 1935. Ali A. Mazrui, Christophe Wondji, Unesco International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa, eds. University of California Press, (1999)ISBN0-520-06703-7 pp. 70–3
^Joseph R. De Benoist, "The Brazzaville Conference, or Involuntary Decolonization."Africana Journal 15 (1990) pp: 39–58.
^Mamoudou Djibo. Les enjeux politiques dans la colonie du Niger (1944–1960). Autrepart no 27 (2003), pp. 41–60.
^abNohlen, D, Krennerich, M & Thibaut, B (1999)Elections in Africa: A data handbook, p685ISBN0-19-829645-2
^Walter S. Clarke, "The National Conference Phenomenon and the Management of Political Conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa," inEthnic Conflict and Democratization in Africa, ed. Harvey Glickman. Atlanta: African Studies Assoc. Press, (1995)ISBN0-918456-74-6
^Niger:Système judiciaireArchived 26 November 2008 at theWayback Machine. NIGER Situation institutionnelle. Sory Baldé, CEAN, IEP-Université Montesquieu-Bordeaux IV (2007) Accessed 13 April 2009
^2008 Human Rights Report: Niger in 2008 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. (25 February 2009) As a publication of the United States Federal Government, this report is in thePublic Domain. Portions of it may be used here verbatim.
^Background Notes for Niger: January 2009Archived 24 May 2019 at theWayback Machine Bureau of African Affairs, United States State Department. Retrieved 26 February 2009. Portions of the "Economy" section are here used verbatim, as this document is in the public domain.
^"Global Hunger Index Scores by 2024 GHI Rank".Global Hunger Index (GHI) - peer-reviewed annual publication designed to comprehensively measure and track hunger at the global, regional, and country levels. Retrieved27 December 2024.
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