Nichiren | |
|---|---|
日蓮 | |
 Portrait from Kuon-ji Temple in Mount Minobu, Yamanashi prefecture, 15th century | |
| Personal life | |
| Born | (1222-04-06)6 April 1222 Kominato village,Awa province,Japan |
| Died | 13 October 1282(1282-10-13) (aged 60) Ikegami Daibo Hongyoji Temple,Musashi province, Japan |
| Nationality | Japanese[1] |
| Education | Kiyozumi-dera Temple (Seichō-ji), Enryaku-ji Temple on Mount Hiei |
| Other names | |
| Religious life | |
| Religion | Buddhism |
| Denomination | Nichiren Buddhism |
| School | |
| Lineage | |
| Senior posting | |
| Teacher | Dōzenbo of Seichō-ji Temple[8]: 442 |
Nichiren (日蓮;Japanese pronunciation:[ɲi.tɕiꜜ.ɾeɴ,ɲiꜜ.tɕi.ɾeɴ],[9] 6 April 1222 – 13 October 1282) was aJapanese Buddhist monk and philosopher of theKamakura period. His teachings form the basis ofNichiren Buddhism, a unique branch of JapaneseMahayana Buddhism based on theLotus Sutra.
Nichiren[10]: 77 [11]: 1 declared that theLotus Sutra alone contains the highest truth of Buddhism and that it is the only sutra suited for theAge of Dharma Decline. He insisted that thesovereign of Japan and its people should support only this form of Buddhism and eradicate all others, or they would face social collapse and environmental disasters.[12] Nichiren advocated the faithful recitation of the title of theLotus Sutra,Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō, as the only effective path toBuddhahood in this very life, a path which he saw as accessible to all people regardless of class, education or ability. Nichiren held thatShakyamuni and all otherBuddhist deities were manifestations of theOriginal Eternal Buddha (本仏Honbutsu) of theLotus Sutra, which he equated with theLotus Sutra itself and its title. He also declared that believers of theLotus Sutra must propagate it even though this would lead to many difficulties and even persecution, which Nichiren understood as a way of "reading" theLotus Sutra with one's very body. Nichiren believed that the spread of theLotus Sutra teachings would lead to the creation of aPure Land on earth.[13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20]
Nichiren was a prolific writer and his biography, temperament, and the evolution of his beliefs has been gleaned primarily from his writings.[21]: 99 [8]: 442 He claimed to be the reincarnation of bodhisattvaViśiṣṭacāritra (Jōgyō),[22][23] and designated six senior disciples, which later led to much disagreement after his death. Nichiren's harsh critiques of the Buddhist establishment led to many persecutions against him and his followers. He was exiled twice and some of his followers were imprisoned or killed.[20] After his death, Nichiren’s followers continued to grow, making it one of Japan's largest Buddhist traditions.[20] He was posthumously bestowed the titleNichiren Dai-Bosatsu (日蓮大菩薩; Great Bodhisattva Nichiren) by theEmperor Go-Kōgon in 1358.[24] The titleRisshō Daishi (立正大師; Great Teacher of Correction) was also later conferred by theEmperor Taishō in 1922.[25]
Nichiren Buddhism today includes more than forty different officially registered organizations, some of which have significant international presence. These include traditional temple schools such asNichiren-shū sects andNichiren Shōshū, as well as modern lay movements such asSoka Gakkai,Risshō Kōsei Kai,Reiyūkai,Kenshōkai,Honmon Butsuryū-shū,Kempon Hokke, andShōshinkai among many others. Each group has varying views of Nichiren's teachings, some being moreexclusivist than the others.[18][20] Some see Nichiren as being theBodhisattvaViśiṣṭacāritra, while other sects claim that Nichiren was actually thePrimordial or "True Buddha" (本仏,Honbutsu).[26][27][28][29]
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The main narrative of Nichiren's life has been constructed from extant letters and treatises he wrote, counted in one collection as 523 complete writings and 248 fragments. Aside from historical documents stored in the repositories of various Nichiren sects, the first extensive non-religious biographical account of Nichiren did not appear until more than 200 years after his death.[30]: ix Severalhagiographies about Nichiren and are reflected in various pieces of artwork about incidents in his life.[31][32][33][8]: 442 [34]
Nichiren is most well known for his promotion ofLotus Sutra devotion over and above all other Buddhist scriptures and teachings.[10]: 88 [35] He held that reciting the title of theLotus Sutra (with the formulaNam(u)-myoho-renge-kyo) encompassed all Buddhist teachings, and thus it could lead to enlightenment in this life.[13]: 328 As a result of his adamant stance, he experienced severe persecution imposed by theKamakura Shogunate, which Nichiren saw as proof of the righteousness of his cause to spread theLotus Sutra.[8]: 252 [36]: 128–130
Nichiren remains a controversial figure among scholars who cast him as either a fervent nationalist or a social reformer with a transnational religious vision.[37] Critical scholars have used words such asintolerant,nationalistic,militaristic, and self-righteous to portray him.[38] On the other hand, Nichiren has been presented as arevolutionary,[39] a classic reformer,[40]: 403 and as aprophet.[40][41]: 3 [42] Nichiren is often compared to other religious figures who shared similar rebellious and revolutionary drives to reform degeneration in their respective societies or schools.[43][44][45][46]
According to the lunarChinese calendar, Nichiren was born on 16th of the second month in 1222, which is 6 April in theGregorian calendar.[47]
Nichiren was born in the village of Kominato (today part of the city ofKamogawa), Nagase District,Awa Province (within present-dayChiba Prefecture). Accounts of his lineage vary. Nichiren described himself as "the son of aSendara (Skt: chandala, despised outcast), "a son born of the lowly people living on a rocky strand of the out-of-the-way sea," and "the son of a sea-diver." In contrast,Hōnen,Shinran,Dōgen, andEisai, the other founders of religious schools who predated Nichiren, were all born in the Kyoto region and came from noble or samurai backgrounds. Although his writings reflect a fierce pride of his lowly birth, followers after his death began to ascribe to him a more noble lineage, perhaps to attract more adherents.[48][49] Some have claimed his father was arōnin,[50] a manorial functionary (shokan),[11]: 5 or a political refugee.[51][49][30]: 4
Nichiren's father was Mikuni-no-Tayu Shigetada, also known as Nukina Shigetada Jiro (died 1258); and his mother was Umegiku-nyo (died 1267). On his birth, his parents named himZennichimaro (善日麿) which has variously been translated into English as "Splendid Sun" and "Virtuous Sun Boy" among others.[52] The exact site of Nichiren's birth is believed to be currently submerged off the shore from present-day Kominato-zanTanjō-ji (小湊山誕生寺) near a temple in Kominato that commemorates his birth.[20]
At the age of 12 he began his Buddhist study at a temple of theTendai school,Seichō-ji (清澄寺; also called Kiyosumi-dera).[41]: 13 He was formally ordained as a novice at sixteen years old to became a monk at twenty years old and took the Buddhist nameZeshō-bō Renchō (是生房蓮長),Renchō meaning "Lotus Growth".[20]
Between the years 1233 and 1253 Nichiren studied the major Buddhist traditions in Japan at that time, includingTendai,Pure Land Buddhism andShingon.[20] During these years, he became convinced of the preeminence of theLotus Sutra and in 1253 returned to the temple where he first studied to present his findings.[53]: 129 [8]: 443–444 [54][41]: 17 [55][10]: 90
In a 1271 letter Nichiren writes of this time of his life:
Determined to plant a seed of Buddhahood and attain Buddhahood in this life, just as all other people, I relied on Amida Buddha and chanted the name of this Buddha since childhood. However, I began doubting this practice, making a vow to study all the Buddhist sutras, commentaries on them by disciples, and explanatory notes by others.[56]
He later left Seichō-ji forKamakura where he studiedPure Land Buddhism, a school that stressed salvation through the invocation of the nameAmitābha (JapaneseAmida), a practiced callednembutsu. He also studiedZen which had been growing in popularity in both Kamakura andKyoto. He next traveled toMount Hiei, the center of JapaneseTendai Buddhism, where he scrutinized the school's original doctrines, including Pure Land and TendaiEsoteric Buddhism. In the final stage of this twenty-year period he traveled toMount Kōya, the center ofShingon esoteric Buddhism, and toNara where he studied itssix established schools, especially theRitsu sect which emphasizedstrict monastic discipline.[57][58]: 243–245
According to one of his letters, Nichiren returned to Seicho-ji Temple on 28 April 1253 to lecture on the supremacy of theLotus Sutra.[20][58]: 246 What followed was his first public declaration ofNam(u) Myoho Renge Kyo atop Mount Kiyosumi that same day. This marked the start of his campaign to convince theTendai tradition to shift its focus back to theLotus Sutra and his efforts to convert the entire Japanese nation to this belief.[42]: 233 This declaration also marks the start of his efforts to make profound Buddhist theory practical and actionable so an ordinary person could manifest Buddhahood within his or her own lifetime in the midst of day-to-day realities.[59]
At the same event, according to his own account and subsequent hagiography, he changed his name toNichiren, anabbreviation ofnichi (日; "Sun") andren (蓮; "Lotus").[41]: 34 Nichi represents both the light of truth and the sun goddessAmaterasu, symbolizing Japan itself.Ren signifies theLotus Sutra. Nichiren envisioned Japan as the country where the true teaching of Buddhism would be revived and the starting point for its worldwide spread.[60]
At his lecture, it is construed, Nichiren vehemently attackedHonen, the founder ofPure Land Buddhism, and its practice of chanting theNembutsu. It is likely he also denounced the nembutsu teachings found atSeicho-ji.[20] In so doing he earned the animosity of the local steward, Tojo Kagenobu, and eventually Nichiren was forced to leave the temple.[20] Modern scholarship suggests that events unfolded not in a single day but over a longer period of time and had social, and political dimensions.[58]: 246–247 [30]: 6–7
Nichiren then moved to a hermitage in the hills aroundKamakura.[20] From there he converted several Tendai priests, directly ordained others, and attracted lay disciples who were drawn mainly from the strata of the lower and middlesamurai class. Their households provided Nichiren with economic support and became the core Nichiren communities in several locations in theKanto region of Japan.[58]: 246–247 [30]: 7–8
Nichiren arrived in Kamakura in 1254. Between 1254 and 1260 half of the population had perished due to a tragic succession of calamities that included drought, earthquakes, epidemics, famine, fires, and storms.[58]: 432#49 Nichiren sought scriptural references to explain the unfolding of natural disasters and then wrote a series of works which, based on the Buddhist theory of the non-duality of the human mind and the environment, attributed the sufferings to the weakened spiritual condition of people, thereby causing theKami (protectiveforces or traces of the Buddha) to abandon the nation. The root cause of this, he argued, was the widespread decline of theDharma due to the mass adoption of the exclusive nembutsu teachings ofHōnen.[58]: 249–250 [61]: 124–125
The most renowned of these works, considered his first major treatise, was theRisshō Ankoku Ron (立正安国論), "On Securing the Peace of the Land through the Propagation of True Buddhism."[note 1] Nichiren submitted it toHōjō Tokiyori, thede facto leader of theKamakura shogunate, as a political move to effectuate radical reform. In it he argued the necessity for "the Sovereign to recognize and accept the singly true and correct form of Buddhism (i.e.,立正risshō) as the only way to achieve peace and prosperity for the land and its people and end their suffering (i.e.,安国ankoku)."[62][63][64]
Using a dialectic form well-established in China and Japan, the treatise is a 10-segment fictional dialogue between a Buddhist wise man, presumably Nichiren, and a visitor who together lament the tragedies that have beleaguered the nation. The wise man answers the guest's questions and, after a heated exchange, gradually leads him to enthusiastically embrace the vision of a country grounded firmly on the ideals of theLotus Sutra. In this writing Nichiren displays a skill in using analogy, anecdote, and detail to persuasively appeal to an individual's unique psychology, experiences, and level of understanding.[65][13]: 328 [30]: 10
The teacher builds his argument by quoting extensively from a set of Buddhist sutras and commentaries. In his future writings Nichiren continued to draw from the same sutras and commentaries which he deemed supportive of theLotus Sutra, including theKonkomyo,Daijuku,Ninno,Yakushi, andNirvana sutras. They share in common themes like prophecies ofDharma decline and nation-protecting teachings.[65]: 330–334 TheRisshō Ankoku Ron concludes with an urgent appeal to the ruler to cease all financial support for Buddhist schools promoting inferior teachings.[65]: 334 Otherwise, Nichiren warns, as predicted by the sutras, the continued influence of inferior teachings would invite even more natural disasters as well as the outbreak of civil strife and foreign invasion.[13]: 328
Nichiren submitted his treatise on 16 July 1260 but it drew no official response. It did, however, prompt a severe backlash from the Buddhist priests of other schools. Nichiren was challenged to a religious debate with leading Kamakura prelates in which, by his account, they were swiftly dispatched. Their lay followers then formed a mob and attacked Nichiren at his dwelling, forcing him to flee Kamakura. His critics had influence with key governmental figures and spread slanderous rumors about him. One year after he submitted theRissho Ankoku Ron the authorities had him arrested and exiled to the Izu peninsula.[58]: 251
Nichiren's Izu exile lasted two years. In his extant writings from this time period, Nichiren began to strongly draw from chapters 10–22 of theLotus Sutra, what Tanabe calls its "third realm"(daisan hōmon). Nichiren began to emphasize the purpose of human existence as being the practice of thebodhisattva ideal in the real world which entails undertaking struggle and manifesting endurance. He suggested that he is a model of this behavior, a "votary" (gyōja) of the Lotus Sutra.[66][58]: 252 [67][68][30]: 11–12
Upon being pardoned in 1263 Nichiren returned to Kamakura. In November 1264 he was ambushed and nearly killed at Komatsubara in Awa Province by a force led by Lord Tōjō Kagenobu. He suffered a broken arm and a sword cut across his forehead, and one of his followers was killed.[20] For the next few years he preached in provinces outside of Kamakura but returned in 1268. At this point the Mongols sent envoys to Japan demanding tribute and threatening invasion. Nichiren sent 11 letters to influential leaders reminding them about his predictions in theRissho Ankoku Ron.[5]: 7–8
The threat ofMongol invasion was the worst crisis in pre-modern Japanese history. In 1269 Mongol envoys again arrived to demand Japanese submission to their hegemony and thebakufu responded by mobilizing military defenses.[30]: 13 The role of Buddhism in "nation-protection" (chingo kokka) was long established in Japan at this time and the government galvanized prayers from Buddhist schools for this purpose. Nichiren and his followers, however, felt emboldened that the predictions he had made in 1260 of foreign invasion seemingly were being fulfilled. Nichiren redoubled his efforts and continued to give regular lectures as more people joined the movement.[20] Daring a rash response from thebakufu, Nichiren vowed in letters to his followers that he was giving his life to actualize theLotus Sutra. He accelerated his polemics against the non-Lotus teachings the government had been patronizing at the very time it was attempting to solidify national unity and resolve. In a series of letters to prominent leaders he directly provoked the major prelates of Kamakura temples that the Hojo family patronized, criticized the principles ofZen which was popular among the samurai class, critiqued the esoteric practices ofShingon just as the government was invoking them, and condemned the ideas underlyingRisshū as it was enjoying a revival.[8]: 454–455 [58]: 257 His actions at that time have been described by modern scholars either as a high form of altruism,[69] or the ravings of a fanatic.[70]
His claims drew the ire of the influential religious figures of the time and their followers, especially the Shingon priestRyōkan (良観). In September 1271, after a fiery exchange of letters between the two, Nichiren was arrested by a band of soldiers and tried by Hei no Saemon (平の左衛門; also called平頼綱Taira no Yoritsuna), the deputy chief of theHojo clan's Board of Retainers. Nichiren considered this as his second remonstration to the government.[71][58]: 257
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According to Nichiren's own account, he was sentenced to exile but was brought to Tatsunukuchi beach inShichirigahama for execution. According to some traditional accounts, the execution was stopped at the final moment as "a brilliant orb as bright as the moon" arced over the execution grounds, terrifying Nichiren's executioners.[72] Modern scholars have proposed alternative narratives for this story and question its historicity.[20][58]: 257, 436 (note 99) Whatever the case, Nichiren himself believed he had undergone a transformative experience.[20] After this event, Nichiren was exiled toSado Island. This incident has become known as the "Tatsunokuchi Persecution" and was regarded by Nichiren as a death-and-resurrection turning point.[58]: 257–258, 436 (note 100) [41]: 58 In the Nichiren tradition this is called his moment ofHosshaku kenpon (発迹顕本), translated as "casting off the transient and revealing the true"[73] or "outgrowing the provisional and revealing the essential."[74]
Nichiren was then exiled to a second location, onSado Island in theSea of Japan. Upon arriving, he was dispatched to a small dilapidated temple located in a graveyard. Nichiren was accompanied by a few disciples and in the first winter they endured terrible cold, food deprivation, and threats from local inhabitants.[58]: 258 Nichiren scholars describe a clear shift in both tone and message in letters written before his Sado exile and those written during and after.[75]: 238 Initially, Nichiren's urgent concern was to rally his followers in Kamakura. The tactics of thebakufu suppression of the Nichiren community included exile, imprisonment, land confiscation, or ousting from clan membership. Apparently a majority of his disciples abandoned their faith and others questioned why they and Nichiren were facing such adversity in light of theLotus Sutra's promise of "peace and security in the present life."[58]: 258–259
In some of his writings during a second exile (1271–1274), Nichiren began to identify himself with two majorLotus Sutra bodhisattvas:Sadāparibhūta andViśiṣṭacāritra.[10]: 99, 100 Sadāparibhūta ("Never Despising") is a key figure in theLotus Sutra, who in the 20th chapter invited repeated persecution in his efforts to propagate the sutra by paying homage to everyone he meets and telling them they will be a Buddha.[20] His hardship, Nichiren argued, fulfilled and validated theLotus Sutra. He thus began to see himself as "bodily reading the Lotus Sutra (Jpn. Hokke shikidoku), which meant that due to his attempts to teach theLotus Sutra and the hardships he faced, he was re-enacting the practices ofSadāparibhūta bodhisattva.[8]: 252 [36]: 128–130 Nichiren also identified himself with the bodhisattvaViśiṣṭacāritra ("Superior Practice") to whom Shakyamuni entrusted the future propagation of theLotus Sutra, seeing himself in the role of leading a vast outpouring ofBodhisattvas of the Earth who pledged to liberate the oppressed.[10]: 99, 100 [76][58]: 259
The numerous letters and minor treatises he wrote in Sado include what is considered his two most significant works, theKanjin no Honzon Shō (観心本尊抄; "The Object of Devotion for Observing the Mind")[62][77] and theKaimoku Shō (開目抄; "On the Opening of the Eyes").[78] The former text discusses the practice of daimoku as a form of "mind contemplation" (kanjin 観心), which is the appropriate practice for the Age of Dharma Decline.[20] In the latter text he stated that facing adversity should be regarded as a matter of course and that the resolve to carry on with the mission to propagate the sutra was for him more important than guarantees of protection: "Let Heaven forsake me. Let ordeals confront me. I will not begrudge bodily life... . No matter what trials we may encounter, so long as we do not have a mind of doubt, I and my disciples will naturally achieve the Buddha realm." He concluded this work with the vow to be the "pillar of Japan, the eyes of Japan, the great ship of Japan."[58]: 259 [13]: 329
At the end of the 1271–1272 winter Nichiren's conditions had improved. He had attracted a small band of followers in Sado who provided him with support and disciples from the mainland began visiting him and providing supplies. In 1272 there was an attempted coup in Kamakura and Kyoto, seemingly fulfilling the prediction he had made in theRissho Ankoku Ron of rebellion in the country. At this point Nichiren was transferred to much better accommodations.[58]: 259 [8]: 452
While on Sado island, Nichiren inscribed the first MandalaGohonzon (御本尊). Although there is evidence of a Gohonzon in embryonic form as far back as the days right before his exile, the first in full form is dated to 8 July 1273 and includes the inscription of "Nichiren inscribes this for the first time."[58]: 437, note 114 His writings on Sado provide his rationale for a calligraphicmandala depicting the assembly atVulture Peak (Gṛdhrakūṭa) which was to be used as an object of devotion or worship. Nichiren found doctrinal rational for this in the 16th (Life span) chapter of theLotus Sutra. It is at this time that he developed the concept of a three-fold "secret Dharma" of thedaimoku, the object of worship (honzon), and the ordination platform (kaidan).[58]: 259–260
At the bottom of each mandala he wrote: "This is the great mandala never before revealed inJambudvipa during the more than 2,200 years since the Buddha's nirvana." He inscribed many Mandala Gohonzon during the rest of his life. More than a hundred Mandala Gohonzon preserved today are attributed to Nichiren's own hand.[10]: 96
In 1274, after his two predictions of foreign invasion and political strife were seemingly actualized by the firstattempted Mongol invasion of Japan along with an unsuccessful coup within theHōjō clan, Nichiren was pardoned by the Shogunate authorities.[5]: 9–10 The pardon came in effect on 14 February 1274 and Nichiren returned to Kamakura one month later on March 26.[58]: 260 Nichiren wrote that his innocence and the accuracy of his predictions caused the regentHōjō Tokimune to intercede on his behalf. Scholars have suggested that some of his well-connected followers might have had influence on the government's decision to release him.[58]: 437, note 115
On 8 April he was summoned by Hei no Saemon, who inquired about the timing of the nextMongol invasion. Nichiren predicted that it would occur within the year. He used the audience as yet another opportunity to remonstrate with the government. Claiming that reliance on prayers based on esoteric rituals would invite further calamity, he urged thebakufu to ground itself exclusively on the Lotus Sutra.[58]: 261
Deeply disappointed by the government's refusal to heed his advice, Nichiren left Kamakura one month later, on 12 May, determined to become a solitary wayfarer. Five days later, however, on a visit to the residence of Lord Hakii Sanenaga of Mt. Minobu, he learned that followers in nearby regions had held steadfast during his exile. Despite severe weather and deprivation, Nichiren remained in Minobu for the rest of his career.[58]: 261
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During his self-imposed exile at Mount Minobu, a location in Kai province, 100 miles west ofKamakura.[79][80][81] Nichiren led a widespread movement of followers inKanto andSado mainly through his prolific letter-writing. During the so-called "Atsuhara affair" of 1279 when governmental attacks were aimed at Nichiren's followers rather than himself, Nichiren's letters reveal an assertive and well-informed leader who provided detailed instructions through a sophisticated network of disciples serving as liaisons between Minobu and other affected areas in Japan. He also showed the ability to provide a compelling narrative of events that gave his followers a broad perspective of what was unfolding.[82]
More than half of the extant letters of Nichiren were written during his years at Minobu. Some consisted of moving letters to followers expressing appreciation for their assistance, counseling on personal matters, and explaining his teachings in more understandable terms.[58]: 261 [83] Two of his works from this period, theSenji Shō (撰時抄; "The Selection of the Time")[84] and theHōon Shō (報恩抄; "On Repaying Debts of Gratitude")[85] constitute, along with hisRisshō Ankoku Ron ("On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land"),Kaimoku Shō ("The Opening of the Eyes"), andKanjin no Honzon Shō ("The Object of Devotion for Observing the Mind"), what is commonly regarded as his five major writings.
During his years at Minobu Nichiren intensified his attacks onmystical and esoteric practices (密教,mikkyō) that had been incorporated into the JapaneseTendai school. It becomes clear at this point that he understood that he was creating his own form of Lotus Buddhism.[86]: 362 Nichiren and his disciples completed theMyō-hōkke-in Kuon-ji Temple (久遠寺) in 1281. In the 19th century this structure burned down to be replaced by a new structure completed in the second half of the Meiji era.[87]: 117 [88]
While at Minobu Nichiren also inscribed numerous MandalaGohonzon for bestowal upon specific disciples and lay believers.Nichiren Shoshu believers claim that after the execution of the three Atsuhara farmers he inscribed theDai Gohonzon on 12 October 1279, a Gohonzon specifically addressed to all humanity. This assertion has been disputed by other schools as historically and textually incorrect.[89][10]: 189 It is apparent that Nichiren took great care in deciding which of his disciples were eligible to receive a Gohonzon inscribed by him. In the case of a letter written to Lady Niiama he took great care to explain why he would not inscribe a Gohonzon despite a deep personal bond.[30]: 52–55 Among the Gohonzon he inscribed were several that were quite large and perhaps intended for congregational use in chapels maintained by some lay followers.[58]: 275
In 1282, after years of seclusion, Nichiren fell ill. His followers encouraged him to travel to the hot springs in Hitachi for their medicinal benefits. He was also encouraged by his disciples to travel there for the warmer weather, and to use the land offered by Hagiri Sanenaga for recuperation. En route, unable to travel further, he stopped at the home of a disciple inIkegami, outside of present-day Tokyo, and died on 13 October 1282. According to legend, he died in the presence of fellow disciples after having spent several days lecturing from his sickbed on the Lotus Sutra, writing a final letter, and leaving instructions for the future of his movement after his death, namely the designation of the six senior disciples. His funeral and cremation took place the following day.[58]: 261 [41]: 133 [90]
His disciples left Ikegami with Nichiren's ashes on 21 October, reaching back to Minobu on 25 October.
Nichiren's teachings developed over the course of his career and their evolution can be seen through the study of his writings as well as in the annotations he made in his personal copy of theLotus Sutra, the so-calledChū-hokekyō.[92]: 363 Some scholars set a clear demarcation in his teachings divided by his arrival on Sado Island, whereas others see a threefold division of thought: (1) up to and through the Izu exile, (2) from his return to Kamakura through the Sado Island exile, and (3) during his years at Minobu.[92]: 252–253 [93]: 238 According to Anesaki, Nichiren, upon his arrival at Minobu, quickly turned his attention to consolidating his teachings toward their perpetuation. The scope of his thinking was outlined in an essayHokke Shuyō-shō (法華取要抄; "Choosing the Heart of the Lotus Sutra"), considered byNikkō Shōnin as one of Nichiren's ten major writings.[94][41]: 98
Nichiren's main ideas include an affirmation of the supremacy of theLotus Sutra and the eternal Buddha of theLotus Sutra, the fact that all beings could achieve Buddhahood in this life, the centrality of thedaimoku as the best practice formappō, and the importance of spreading the teachings of theLotus Sutra.[20][41]: 98–100 Nichiren's vision of widely and extensively spreading theLotus Sutra (Kosen-rufu) looks towards a time when the teachings would be widely spread throughout the world.[95] Nichiren also set a precedent for Buddhistactivism centuries before its emergence in other Buddhist schools. He held adamantly that his teachings would permit a nation to right itself and ultimately lead to world peace.[96][75]: 251 [97][98]: 54
Some of his religious thinking was derived from theTendai tradition and the works of ChineseTiantai mastersZhiyi andZhanran, as well as from new perspectives that were products ofKamakura Buddhism.[98]: vii–ix Other ideas were completely original and unique to Nichiren.
TheKamakura period (1185-1333) was characterized by a sense of decline and foreboding. Nichiren, as well as the others of this time, believed that they had entered theAge of Dharma Decline or the "Final Dharma Age" (Mappō). The Kamakura period, a time of natural disasters, internal strife, wars, and political conflict, gave many Japanese the impression that the era of decline had begun.[99] According to variousMahayana sutras, during the age of decline, most of the Buddha's teachings would be lost or lose their efficacy. Nichiren held that since Japan had entered Mappō, teachings likenembutsu, Zen and esoteric practices were no longer effective – onlyLotus Sutra practices were effective.[20]
Nichiren also believed that the world had entered the final age of degeneration. Like many Buddhists of his time, he held that this was a reflection of the degenerate state of the minds of the people. This is based on the classic Mahayana theory that says that the world is a reflection of the collective karmic traces of the minds of all beings living in the world.[100] For Nichiren, the activities of the Japanese elite had caused the current state of chaos.[100] Furthermore, Nichiren held that due to their lack of virtue, Japan was being abandoned by the gods, leading to the natural disasters which were occurring and to the threat of Mongol invasion. Japan had a long-established system of folk beliefs (now calledShinto) based on localKami (indigenous deities). These had been adopted by Buddhist traditions, who often argued thatkami were 'traces' of the Buddha. Buddhists institutions often engaged in rites calling on Kami as well as onBuddhist deities, to protect the nation (chingo kokka).[58]: 40–42, 166 [101][102] Nichiren argued that the various protective deities had abandoned Japan because the court and the people had turned away from the true Dharma of theLotus Sutra to false teachings.[103][104] Thus, if the government and the people turned to the true Dharma, society would transform into an ideal world in which peace and wisdom prevail and "the wind will not thrash the branches nor the rain fall hard enough to break clods."[58]: 291–292
Although Nichiren attributed the turmoils and disasters in society to the widespread practice of what he deemed inferior Buddhist teachings sponsored by the government, he was also enthusiastically upbeat about the portent of the age. He asserted, in contrast to other schools, Mappō was the best possible time to be alive, since now theBodhisattvas of the Earth would appear teach and spread theLotus Sutra.[58]: 56, 254 [105]
Nichiren also taught Five Principles (gogi) or five criteria for evaluating Buddhist teachings and establishing the supremacy of theLotus Sutra as the highest and best teaching for Japan at his time. The five are:[58]: 252–255 [106][107]
Nichiren stressed the idea that the Buddha'sPure Land isimmanent in this present world (shaba soku jakkōdo) and that all beings have the innate potential to attainBuddhahood in this very body (sokushin jōbutsu), though this can only be achieved by relying on theLotus Sutra. Nichiren was influenced by earlier ideas taught byKūkai andSaichō, who had taught the possibility of becoming a Buddha in this life and the belief all beings are "originally enlightened" (hongaku).[108][109][20]
In theTendai school, these theories were also closely related toZhiyi's theory of the "mutual inclusion of the ten Dharma-realms" (jikkai gogu 十界互具), also calledThree Thousand Realms in a Single Thought (ichinen sanzen 一念三千), as well as onZhanran's view of the all-pervasive character ofBuddha-nature.[110][20] AsJacqueline Stone writes "ichinen sanzen means that the smallest phenomenon (a single thought-moment) and the entire cosmos (three thousand realms) are mutually encompassing: the one and the many; good and evil; delusion and awakening; subject and object; self and other; and all sentient beings from hell dwellers, hungry ghosts, and animals up through bodhisattvas and buddhas, as well as their respective environments, simultaneously interpenetrate and encompass one another without losing their individual identity."[20] This realization is itself the wisdom of the Buddha, and the "Wonderful Dharma" (myōhō 妙法) taught by theLotus Sutra.[20]
Nichiren sawichinen sanzen as pointing to the potential for Buddhahood in all beings (ri no ichinen sanzen 理の一念三千) and to the actualization of Buddhahood itself (ji no ichinen sanzen 事の一念三千), which encompasses and illuminates all other realms. He associated these with the "trace" teaching of the first half of theLotus Sutra and with the "origin" teaching of the latter half of the sutra respectively.[20] He also saw ichinen sanzen as the ultimate truth and the heart of theLotus Sutra, writing that "only theTiantai ichinen sanzen is the path of attaining Buddhahood."[111] However, he also saw his own teaching of ichinen sanzen as different and as going beyond that which was taught by Zhiyi. This is because Nichiren held that his teaching of the "true ichinen sanzen" was based on the latter half of theLotus Sutra (the origin teaching), instead of on second chapter. For Nichiren this is "the doctrine of original cause (hon’in) and original effect (honga). The nine realms are inherent in the beginningless Buddha realm; the Buddha realm inheres in the beginningless nine realms." This teaching "demolishes" all views of gradual training.[112]
Nichiren held that this teaching of the interfusion of all reality, the ultimate meaning of theLotus Sutra, could now be realized solely through devotion to the sutra, especially by the practice of faithfully chanting the title of the sutra (daimoku). This allowed one to contemplate one's mind (kanjin) and to attain the fruit of Buddhahood in this life.[20] This was possible because theLotus Sutra and the daimoku contains the entirety of the Buddha's teachings within it, as well as all ofShakyamuni Buddha's power and merits.[20] This is Nichiren's teaching of ichinen sanzen as "actuality" (ji), meaning a practice that relies on an actual form (jisō), which he contrasted with the teaching of Zhiyi'sMohe Zhiguan which taught ichinen sanzen of "principle" (ri).[113]
According to Nichiren, Buddhahood would manifest when a person faithfully chants the sutra's title and shares it with others, at whatever the cost.[58]: 68, 265–266 Indeed, for Nichiren,Lotus Sutra focused practice was the only efficacious practice in the Final Dharma Age.[20] This is because Nichiren held that theLotus Sutra contains the true intent of the Buddha:
TheLotus Sutra is the written expression of Śākyamuni Tathāgata’s intent; it is his pure voice transformed into written words. Thus its written words are endowed with the Buddha’s mind. It is like the case of seeds, sprouts, shoots, and grain; though they differ in form, their essence is the same. Śākyamuni Buddha and the words of theLotus Sutra are different, but their spirit is one. Thus when you look upon the words of the Lotus Sutra, you should think that you are encountering the living Śākyamuni Tathāgata.[114]
Nichiren emphasized the importance of faith, practice, and study. Faith meant embracing theLotus Sutra, something that needed to be continually deepened. "To accept (ju) [faith in the sutra] is easy," he explained to a follower, "to uphold it (ji) is difficult. But the realization of Buddhahood lies in upholding [faith]." This could only be manifested by the practice of chanting thedaimoku as well as teaching others to do the same, and study.[58]: 270, 295 [115]: 12–13
Consequently, Nichiren consistently and vehemently objected to the perspective of thePure Land School that stressed an other-worldly aspiration to somePure Land outside of this world. Behind his assertion is the concept of thenonduality of the subjective realm (the individual) and the objective realm (the land that the individual inhabits) which indicates that when the individual taps into Buddhahood, his or her present world becomes peaceful and harmonious. For Nichiren the widespread propagation of theLotus Sutra and consequent world peace ("kosen-rufu") was achievable and inevitable. He thus tasked his future followers with a mandate to accomplish it.[116][117]: 68
While Nichiren critiquedHōnen's Pure Land tradition for sidelining theLotus Sutra, he was also influenced by it.Hōnen had introduced the concept of focusing on a single practice over all others (which was to benembutsu). This practice was revolutionary because it was simple and accessible to all. It also minimalized theelitist and monopolistic role of the Buddhist establishment.[118][119][120] Nichiren appropriated the structure of a universally accessible single practice but substituted the nembutsu with the recitation of the daimoku (Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō), while also affirming that this practice could lead to Buddhahood in this life, instead of just leading to birth in a Pure Land.[36]: 124
Since Nichiren deemed the world to be in a degenerate age where most teachings were ineffective, he held that people required a simple and effective method to attain Buddhahood. According to Nichiren, the way to Buddhahood was through theThree Great Secret Dharmas (sandai hihō 三大秘法): the invocation of theLotus Sutra's title (daimoku), the object of worship (honzon), and the ordination platform or place of worship (kaidan).[121]: 353 Nichiren held that these three Dharmas are the concrete manifestations of "the actualization of ichinen sanzen" (ji no ichinen sanzen) specific to the Age of Dharma Decline.[20]
A work attributed to Nichiren named theSandai hi hō honjōji (三大秘法稟承事,Transmission of the Three Great Secret Dharmas) states that Nichiren discovered the three Dharmas in the 16th chapter of theLotus Sutra, and that as the leader of theBodhisattvas of the Earth, he secretly received them from the original Buddha (honbutsu) who resides in the originally existing Land of Tranquil Light.[122]: 266 [58]: 264 [121]: 353 Several modern scholars have questioned the authenticity of this text however.[20][122]: 266, 268 [123]
According to Nichiren, practicing the Three Secret Dharmas results in the "Three Proofs" which verify their validity. The first proof is "documentary," whether the religion's fundamental texts, here the writings of Nichiren, make a lucid case for the eminence of the religion. "Theoretical proof" is an intellectual standard of whether a religion's teachings reasonably clarify the mysteries of life and death. "Actual proof," deemed the most important by Nichiren, demonstrates the validity of the teaching through the actual improvements and experiences which manifest in the daily life of practitioners.[124][125][126][127][128]
Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō, thedaimoku ("the title" of theLotus Sutra preceded by "Namu", meaning "homage to"), is both the essence of theLotus Sutra's Dharma and the means to discover that truth, i.e. the interconnected unity of self, others and environment with Buddhahood itself. Nichiren sees this as the only truly effective practice, the superior Buddhist practice for this time. Thus, according to Nichiren, "it is better to be a leper who chants Nam(u) Myōhō Renge Kyō than be a chief abbot of the Tendai school."[58]: 56, 254 [105] For Nichiren, the daimoku is "the heart of the eighty thousand sacred teachings and the eye of all buddhas," and contains the entireBuddhadharma.[20]
Nichiren was influenced byZhiyi, who argued in hisProfound Meaning of the Lotus Sūtra (Fahua xuanyi 法華玄義) that the title of the sutra contains the meaning of the entire sutra (which itself contains the whole of Buddhism). Stone writes, "for Nichiren, the daimoku, as the embodiment of ichinen sanzen, encompasses all phenomena, including all beings and their environments in the ten realms of existence."[20] This non-dual reality is contained in the termMyōhō (Miao in Chinese).[129]
Furthermore, the daimoku is also said to contain the Buddha's enlightenment and all his spiritual powers.[20] As he writes in theKanjin honzon shō: "Śākyamuni’s causal practices and their resulting virtues are all contained within the five characters Myōhō Renge Kyō. When we embrace these five characters, he will naturally transfer to us the merit of his causes and effects."[20] He also writes:
For those who are incapable of understanding the truth of ichinen sanzen, Lord Śākyamuni Buddha, with His great compassion, wraps this jewel in the five characters of myō, hō, ren, ge, and kyō and hangs it around the neck of the ignorant in the Latter Age of Degeneration.[130]
Like other Tendai figures of his time, Nichiren held that theLotus Sutra taught the unity of the cause (skillful means) and the effect (Buddhahood). Nichiren held that the termRenge (Dharma Flower) represents how the cause and the effect (practice and Buddhahood) are one. This is symbolized by the lotus flower because its blossoms and seed pods grow at the same time.[129]
Thus, the chanting of the daimoku allowed one to access all the merit of the Buddha's practices. It links a practitioner to the Buddha's wisdom which sees all of reality as a single whole and thus allows one to attain the "realization of buddhahood with this very body."[20]
Furthermore, Nichiren saw this practice as going beyong the self-power versusother-power dichotomy used by Pure Land Buddhism:
The Lotus Sutra establishes self-power but is not self-power. Since the "self" encompasses all beings of the ten realms, one’s own person from the outset contains the Buddha realm of both oneself and of all be- ings. Thus one does not now become a Buddha for the first time. [The sutra] also establishes other-power but is not other-power. Since the Buddha who is "other" is contained within us ordinary worldlings, this Buddha naturally manifests himself as identical to ourselves.[131]
For Nichiren, Buddhahood is immanently accessible through the daimoku. Nichiren also saw the daimoku as granting worldly benefits, such as healing and protection from harm.[20] He taught that by relying on the daimoku, one would achieve a state of inner fredom, writing: "Recognize suffering as suffering, enjoy pleasures for what they are, and whether in suffering or joy, keep chanting Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō... Then you will know the joy of the Dharma for yourself."[20]
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The chanting of the daimoku is to be done while contemplating the daimandara 大曼荼羅 ("greatmandala") orgohonzon 御本尊 ("revered object of worship").[20] Japanese Buddhists often had a personal shrine with an object of worship (honzon), which could be a painting, mandala or statue. These objects were often held to embody the powers of the Buddhas. Nichiren created a unique honzon style in the form of a calligraphic mandala (in Chinese characters and two Siddham glyphs) representing the entire cosmos, specifically centered around theLotus Sutra's ceremony in the air aboveVulture Peak.[20][132][121]: 354
Nichiren inscribed many of these mandalas as personal honzons for his followers. More than 120 of them survive in Nichiren's own hand with his signature.[20] Nichiren drew on earlier visual representations of theLotus Sutra and was also influenced by contemporary figures likeMyōe andShinran who also created calligraphic honzon for their disciples. Since these did not require expert painters or expensive materials to make, they could be made in larger numbers for wide dissemination.[20]
Nichiren's gohonzons contain the daimoku written vertically in the center. It is flanked by the names ofŚākyamuni andPrabhūtaratna Buddha, as well as the names of various bodhisattvas (especially prominent being theFour Bodhisattvas of the Earth), deities, and other beings. These figures also representichinen sanzen, the mutual inclusion of the ten realms. Thus, the great mandala embodies the entire cosmos and its interfusion with Buddhahood.[20] In other words, the gohonzon symbolizes the non-duality between our world and the sacred realm of the original Buddha of theLotus Sutra, where the sutra is being taught eternally.[133]
According to Stone, the logic of this mandala is influenced byEsoteric Buddhistyogas, in which the yogi visualizes their unity with the Buddha realm.[20] However, for Nichiren, the unity of oneself and the Buddha is not achieved through yogic means, but mainly through faith. As Stone explains, "by chanting the daimoku, the devotee "enters" the mandala, the realm of the original Buddha’s awakening, and participates in the enlightened reality that it depicts."[20]
Nichiren discusses the ordination platform (kaidan 戒壇) or place of worship, less frequently than the other great secret Dharmas for the mappō era. Teachings on it can be found in theSandai hi hō honjōji, a work of questionable authenticity.[20] Traditionally, a kaidan is a place where theBuddhist precepts are transmitted tonovices. However, Nichiren held that the merit of the precepts was already contained within the daimoku, and that embracing theLotus Sutra was the only true precept in the Final Dharma Age. Nichiren's intentions for the establishment of an "ordination platform of the origin teaching" (honmon no kaidan 本門の戒壇) is thus far from clear, though he seems to have held that it would supersede the Tendai ordination platform onMount Hiei. TheSandai hi hō honjōji teaches that it will be built as great Dharma center for all the people of the world once theEmperor and his government all embraced theLotus Sutra.[20]
Nichiren left the fulfillment of thekaidan to his successors and its interpretation has been a matter of heated debate. Some state that it refers to the construction of a physical ordination platform sanctioned by the Emperor; others contend that the ordination platform is the community of believers (sangha) or, simply, the place where practitioners of theLotus Sutra live and make collective efforts to realize the ideal of establishing the true Dharma in order to establish peace to the land (risshō ankoku). The latter metaphorical interpretation is based on theLotus Sūtra itself which states that "the place of enlightenment" is any place where one upholds the sutra. The latter conception reflects Nichiren's understanding that Buddhist practice must be grounded in a concrete place and must be engaged with the real world outside of temples and hermitages.[20] It has also been interpreted as promoting engagement with the secular world as well as working to improve society.[20][122]: 266, 268 [123]
Nichiren's teachings are replete with practical aspirations for self-transformation. He urged his followers to "quickly reform the tenets you hold in your heart" (Risshō Ankoku Ron), and to reflect on their behavior as human beings.[134]: 76, 79–80, 86, 89 [135] Nichiren also made a "great vow" that he and all his followers would create the conditions for a peacefulDharmic nation. This is described in theLotus Sutra askosen-rufu (lit. "to extensively declare and spread [theLotus Sutra] far and wide"). In earlier Japanese Buddhism the concept of "nation" was equated withImperial rule and peace with political stability. Nichiren's teachings embraced a new view which held that "nation" referred to the land and the people. Nichiren was unique among his contemporaries in charging the actual government in power (thebakufu), as responsible for peace and for the thriving of Dharma. For Nichiren, all human beings were equal in the eyes of the Buddha and all were responsible for the state of their nation. Furthermore, enlightenment is not restricted to one's inner life, but is actualized by making efforts toward the transformation of nation and society.[136]: 313–320
Because of this, Nichiren saw himself as responsible for saving the Japanese nation, which he believed could only be accomplished by spreading the teaching of theLotus Sutra.[20] Nichiren saw his struggles to spread theLotus as reflecting and re-enacting the efforts of thebodhisattvas which appear in theLotus Sutra, mainlySadāparibhūta andViśiṣṭacāritra. He constantly enjoined his followers to continue to spread the teaching of theLotus and to keep working to create aPure Land in this world in the future.[20][41]: 66–69 [136]: 320–321
The tradition of Buddhist debate has deep-seated roots in the Buddhist tradition, going all the way back to Indian works on debate andSiddhanta texts.[137][138][139][140] In addition to formalized religious debates, theKamakura period was marked by flourishing and competitive oral religious discourse. Temples competed for the patronage of elites through oratorical sermonizing and temple lecturers (kōshi) faced pressure to attract crowds. Sermonizing spread from within the confines of temples to homes and the streets as wandering mendicants (shidōso,hijiri, orinja) preached to both the educated and illiterate in exchange for alms. In order to teach principles of faith preachers incorporated colorful storytelling, music, vaudeville, and drama—which later evolved intoNoh.[30]: 48–49
A predominant topic of debate in Kamakura Buddhism was the concept of rebuking "slander of the Dharma", a topic found in theLotus Sutra.[36]: 114–115 Polemical critiques of other sects could be found in the works of numerous Kamakura period authors.[36]: 116, 120 Hōnen had taught people to "discard" (捨,sha), "close" (閉,hei), "put aside" (閣,kaku), and "abandon" (抛,hō) all non-Pure Land teachings and his followers often took this to radical extremes. His ideas were vociferously attacked by many authors includingMyōe andJōkei.[141] Thus, Nichiren's critiques of other sects must be understood in the context of a time in which religiouspolemics were common.[36]: 116, 120 Nichiren himself saw countering slander of the Dharma as a key pillar of Buddhist practice.[36]: 114, 145–146
At age 32, Nichiren began a career of denouncing severalMahayana schools of his time and declaring what he asserted was the correct teaching.[142][143] The first target of his polemics wasHōnen's Pure Land teaching which had by now become very popular. Nichiren's detailed rationale is most famously articulated in his first major work, theOn Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land (立正安国論,Risshō Ankoku Ron[63]).[note 1][144][145] While Nichiren's polemics were often harsh, he always chose personal or written debate and did not resort toreligious violence. Nichiren remained non-violent even while experiencing persecution and living in a world in which established sects like theTendai school wielded armies of warrior monks (Sōhei) to attack their critics. Nichiren is said to have stated: "Whatever obstacles I may encounter, as long as men [persons] of wisdom do not prove my teachings to be false, I will never yield."[134]: 86–87
For Nichiren,Buddhist texts discuss to main approaches to spreading theBuddhadharma: the gradual method of shōju (摂 受) in which one leads others without confronting or challenging them, and shakubuku (折伏), an assertive method of critiquing others' views. Nichiren held that depending on the time and place, one could use either of these.[20] Nichiren believed that since Japan was a Buddhist country that had entered the Final Dharma Age in which people were discarding theLotus Sutra, it was necessary to make use of confrontational shakubuku when encountering certain people.[20] Nichiren saw his critiques as a compassionate act, since he was convinced only theLotus could lead to liberation in this age. Even if people rejected his teachings, Nichiren held that hearing about theLotus Sutra would plant a seed in their minds which would sprout in the future.[20] However, he also acknowledged that in some cases, one should also rely on shōju, even during this time. One example was when teaching in a non-buddhist country.[20] This flexibility opened the way for later controversy in the Nichiren tradition, which has often been divided over which approach to employ.[20]
Throughout his career Nichiren harshly denounced various Buddhist traditions, as well as the existing social and political system that supported them.[146] Modern detractors criticize his exclusivist perspective asintolerant. Apologists argue his arguments should be understood in the context of his times and not through a modern lens that rejects religious confrontation.[147]
Nichiren's polemics included sharp criticisms of the Pure Land,Shingon (meaningEsoteric Buddhism in general),Zen, andRitsu schools. The core of Nichiren's critique was that these schools had turned people away from theLotus Sutra, making them focus on other thing like a postmortem destination (Pure Land), secret and elitist master disciple transmissions (Zen, and Esotericism) andmonastic rules (Ritsu). His criticisms have become known as the "Four Denunciations". He also critiqued the Japanese Tendai school for its appropriation of esoteric elements (Taimitsu). Reliance on esoteric rituals, he claimed, was useless magic and would lead to national decay. He held that Zen was devilish in its belief that attaining enlightenment was possible through a "secret transmission outside the scriptures", and that Ritsu was thievery because it hid behind token deeds such as public works. In modern parlance, the Four Denunciations rebuked demoralized and disengaged people by discouragingoccultism,clericalism,legalism, andescapism.[41]: 8–11 [148][149]
In spite of his critiques, Nichiren did not reject all other Buddhist traditions or practices in full. His focus remained on those whom he saw as "slandering the Dharma", i.e. those who turned people away from theLotus Sutra or argued that it was a sutra of a lower class. Thus, he writes inTheOpening of the Eyes:
I believe that the devotees and followers of theFlower Garland,Meditation,Mahāvairochana, and other sutras will undoubtedly be protected by the Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and heavenly beings of the respective sutras that they uphold. But if the votaries of theMahāvairochana, Meditation, and other sutras should set themselves up as the enemies of the votary of theLotus Sutra, then the Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and heavenly beings will abandon them and will protect the votary of theLotus Sutra. It is like the case of a filial son whose father opposes the ruler of the kingdom. The son will abandon his father and support the ruler, for to do so is the height of filial piety.[150]
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Nichiren's combative preaching led to many attacks and persecutions against him and his followers. Nichiren saw these attacks as signifying his role as a "votary of the Lotus Sutra" (法華経の行者,Hokekyō no gyōja), one who bears witness to the truth of the sutra through their own life and is thus assured of enlightenment. TheLotus Sutra states that those who base themselves on its teachings and attempt to spread it will experience many trials and personal attacks. By persevering in this, they will eventually reach Buddhahood. Nichiren claimed to be "reading [theLotus Sutra] with his body" (shikidoku 色読), that is directly and physically experiencing the words of the sutra instead of just reciting or thinking about it.[152]: 35–36 Stone writes that this process entails a circular hermeneutic in which "the sūtra’s predictions that its devotees will encounter hardships legitimated Nichiren’s actions, and Nichiren’s experience of persecution, in fulfilling scriptural prophecy, legitimated theLotus Sūtra."[20]
Nichiren saw it as his personal mission to actively face these trials, and claimed he found great meaning and joy in them. He even expressed appreciation to his tormentors for giving him the opportunity to serve as an envoy of the Buddha.[153]: 34, 36 Furthermore, for Nichiren, experiencing trials and even death in service to theLotus Sutra was also a way to attain Buddhahood.[154] This practice of "bodily reading" the sutra and "not begrudging bodily life" is one of the most central elements of Nichiren's soteriology. Nichiren found this teaching in theLotus Sutra's statement "we do not value bodily life, but cherish only the unexcelled way."[151]
Nichiren also saw his sufferings as redemptive opportunities to quickly transform hiskarma and repay his debts to the triple gem, to one's parents, nation, and to all of beings.[20][152]: 37 He further held that encountering great trials for the sake of theLotus guaranteed one's future Buddhahood, and he compared this to the radical acts of self-sacrifice found in the Mahayana sutras. His personal example has provided enduring encouragement to Nichiren Buddhists as well as to other individuals who have risked their lives to uphold their convictions.[20]
Nichiren was well aware of the struggles his followers faced in their lives. He taught them that facing these challenges would lead to a sense of inner freedom, peace of mind, and to an understanding of the Dharma. Nichiren accepted the classic Buddhist views on karma which taught that a person's current conditions were the cumulative effect of past thoughts, words, and actions. However, he preferred to focus on how all people, even the ignorant, poor and evil, could become Buddhas through devotion to theLotus Sutra.[152]: 30–32 Nichiren thus taught that when confronting difficult karmic situations, chanting of the daimoku would open the wisdom of the Buddha and transform one's karma, awakening a universal concern for one's society.[155]: 168 In some of his letters, Nichiren extended his theory of facing persecution for theLotus Sutra to personal problems like familial discord or illness. He encouraged his followers to take ownership of negative life events, and to view them as opportunities to repay karmic debts and to practice Dharma, which help could shorten the length of these events.[153]: 37
For Nichiren, finding joy in experiencing theLotus Sutra through one's personal life experience was of paramount in importance. Nichiren held that peace of mind in the face of life's challenges is precisely what the Lotus Sutra meant by its statement that those to uphold the sutra will have peace and security. According to Stone, Nichiren "demonstrated an attitude that wastes little energy in railing against it but unflinchingly embraces it, interpreting it in whatever way appears meaningful at the moment so as to use that suffering for one's own development and to offer it on behalf of others."[153]: 39
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Nichiren defends a profoundnonduality between subjective existence and the surrounding world, the non-separation of subjective experience and environmental karmic effects (eshō funi, 依正不二). According to this doctrine, the environment reflects the inner life-condition of the sentient beings who inhabit it. Thus, the same world appears differently to individuals based on their state of mind: a person in a state of hellish suffering experiences a hell-like world, while an awakened being experiences a Pure Land. This teaching was not limited to internal realization; it implied that sincere Buddhist practice would directly affect the external world. Because each of the Ten Realms interpenetrates and includes both sentient beings and their environments, the act of actualizing Buddhahood within oneself simultaneously actualizes Buddhahood in one’s surroundings. As more individuals engage in the chanting practice, the transformation would extend outward, gradually turning this world into an idealBuddha-field.[20]
Nichiren envisioned this transformed world as a tangible outcome of faith and practice, though he rarely detailed its specific characteristics. However, in one writing, he claims that if everyone chanted in unison, natural disasters would cease, social harmony would prevail, and people would gain long lives. This suggests that through faith in theLotus Sutra, a society in alignment with nature and moral governance could be established. This vision imbues Nichiren’s doctrine with a clear social dimension: the realization of the Pure Land is not solely an individual spiritual goal but a communal one. His followers across history have pursued this aim in various forms, inspired by the belief that practice can reform society. Nichiren's this-worldly orientation stands in contrast to thePure Land Buddhism ideal prevalent in his time, which encouraged rejection of this impure world in favor of rebirth in a transcendent land after death.[20]
In his later years, Nichiren did address the question of the devotee’s destiny after death. He taught that anyone who embraced theLotus Sutra and had faith in it would enter the "Pure Land ofVulture Peak" (Ryōzen jōdō, 霊山浄土), associated with theLotus Sutra's assembly in the air. This provided a peaceful postmortem destination for Nichiren's followers, analogous to the pure land ofSukhavati.[156] However, Nichiren did not regard this Pure Land as realm separate from this world. Even though it encompasses the faithful deceased, this land is ultimately the sacred space of enlightenment accessible here and now through devotion to theLotus Sūtra. It is thus the "land of tranquil light" (jō jakkōdo), the highest Pure Land in the Tendai system.[20][156] For Nichiren, the boundary between the mundane and the sacred collapses in the moment of embracing theLotus. By chantingNamu Myōhō Renge Kyō, "gains entrance by faith" into the Buddha's presence, participating in the "eternal assembly in open space" (kokūe no gishiki) of theLotus Sutra, where Shakyamuni andMany Jewels Buddha teach from the Jeweled Stupa.[20][156]
Thus, Nichiren says in hisKanjin no Honzon-shō:
Thesahā world of the present moment (ima), which is the original time (honji) [of the Buddha’s enlightenment], is the constantly abiding pure land, liberated from the three disasters and beyond [the cycle of] the four kalpas [formation, stability, decline and extinction]. Its Buddha has not already entered nirvāṇa in the past, nor is he yet to be born in the future. And his disciples are of the same essence. This [world] is [implicit in] the three realms, which are inherent in the three thousand realms of one’s mind.[156]
Thus, through faith and the daimoku, one can enter the Pure Land in this life, which is equivalent to "attaining buddhahood in this body" (sokushin jōbutsu).[156] Therefore, unlike with the Pure Land teaching of Sukhavati, Nichiren's idea of the Pure Land is not a world outside ofSaṃsāra and does not require one to loathe this defiled world and seek to escape it.[156] Nichiren writes:
The originally enlightened Buddha of the perfect teaching abides in this world. If one abandons this land, toward what other land should one aspire? . . . The practitioner who believes in theLotus andNirvana sutras should not seek another place, for wherever one has faith in this sutra is precisely the pure land. . . . . For people of our day, who have not yet formed a bond with theLotus Sutra, to aspire to theWestern Pure Land is to aspire to a land of rubble.[131]
Nichiren taught that all beings had the same capacity to attain Buddhahood. He held that theLotus Sutra teaches the equality of all beings.[157] He also taught that neither social class nor gender were barriers to one's Buddhahood. This view was rare in Japan, which was a society dominated by elite men. Women were not even allowed onMount Hiei for example, and were traditionally considered to be impure during menstruation.[158] Nichiren emphasized that women are equal in their spiritual capacity:
Many women in their prime became nuns during Shakyamuni's time and practiced the way of the Buddha, but they were never despised because of their menstrual periods. Menstruation is not a pollution that comes from without. It is simply a feminine characteristic...[158]
Nichiren was a charismatic leader who attracted many followers during both his missionary trips and his exiles. They includedsamurai, feudal lords, commoners and merchants, men and women. He taught his followers that women were equally able to attain enlightenment. He wrote to them often, sharing his rationale and strategies with them, openly urging them to share his conviction and struggles.[159][13]: 328–329
Nichiren's many extant letters demonstrate the scope and breadth of his relationship with them and his expectations for them. They recognized and trusted his charismatic leadership and his understanding of Buddhism. Many sought his guidance to overcome personal problems. Many were actively involved with supporting him financially and protecting his community of followers. Several of disciples were praised by him for sharing in his privations and a few lost their lives in these situations. The relationship between Nichiren and his disciples has been calledshitei funi, the oneness of mentor and disciple. Although the functions of the mentor and disciple may vary, they share the same goals and the same responsibility. Nichiren claimed the precedent forshitei funi is a core theme of theLotus Sutra, especially in chapters 21 and 22 where the Buddha entrusts the future propagation of the sutra to the gathered bodhisattvas.[160][161][162]
In the centuries after his death, theNichiren movement experienced many internal divisions and further persecutions. Nevertheless, Nichiren's Lotus (Hokke) tradition grew steadily and maintained Nichiren's teachings. In the years after his death, Nichiren's teachings were interpreted in different ways by his followers. As a result, Nichiren Buddhism encompasses several major branches and schools, each with its own doctrine and set of interpretations of Nichiren's teachings.[163] Today his followers are found in influential lay movements as well as traditional Nichiren schools likeNichiren-shū andNichiren Shōshū.[164][165] With an estimated 10 millions followers, modernNichiren Buddhism is the second largest tradition ofJapanese Buddhism (second only toPure Land Buddhism with 22 million followers).[166]
A massive body of scholarship on Nichiren has been written in Japanese. This includes sectarian and academic works. The Institute of Nichiren Buddhist Studies atRisshō University (Risshō Daigaku Nichiren Kyōgaku Kenkyūjo 立正大 学日蓮教学硏究所) is a major Japanese institution which focuses on Nichiren studies. It is affiliated withNichiren-shū.[20] Nichiren has drawn less attention from Western scholars than other Japanese Buddhist figures, and he was initially stereotyped as intolerant or militant. Nevertheless, scholars like Gaston Renondeau, Alicia Matsunaga, Daigan Matsunaga, Bruno Petzold, Lucia Dolce andJacqueline Stone have written in English on Nichiren.[20]
Nichiren was a prolific writer. His collected works in four volumes contains up to five hundred writings.[20] Nichiren also kept a copy of theLotus Sūtra which he annotated profusely and has also been published.[20] Many writings still exist in his original handwriting, some as complete works and some as fragments. Other documents survive as copies made by his immediate disciples. Nichiren's existing works number over 700manuscripts in total, including transcriptions of orally delivered lectures, letters of remonstration and illustrations.[167][168][169][170][171] According to Fumihiko Sueki: "the most rigorously edited and reliable collection of Nichiren’s writings is theShōwa teihon Nichiren Shōnin ibun 昭和定本日蓮聖人遺文 (STN), edited and published after World War II by Risshō Daigaku Nichiren Kyōgaku Kenkyūjo (1988)."[122]
Scholars have divided the writings attributed to Nichiren into three categories: those whose authenticity are universally accepted, those generally designated as written by someone else after his death, and a third category in which the veracity of works is still being debated.[172][122]
In addition to treatises written in formalClassical Chinese (漢文,kanbun), Nichiren also wrote expositories and letters to followers in mixedkanji-kana vernacular as well as letters in simplifiedkana for believers such as children who could not read the more formal styles. Some of Nichiren'skanbun works, especially theRisshō Ankoku Ron, are considered exemplary of thekanbun style, while many of his letters focus on more empathic exhortations to commoners and laypeople.[173]
Among his main Classical Chinese treatises, five are generally accepted by all Nichiren schools as his major works:[174][175][176]
Nikkō Shōnin added an additional five writings to comprise a set of ten major writings (this specific list is only central inNichiren Shōshū).[176][178]
Among the collection of his extant writings are numerous letters to his follows in the form of thank you notes, messages of condolence, responses to questions, and spiritual counseling for trying moments in his followers' lives. Collectively these letters demonstrate that Nichiren was a master of providing both comfort and challenge befitting the unique personalities and situations of each individual.[21]: 102 [30]: 52
Many of these letters use tales drawn from Indian, Chinese, and Japanese traditions as well as historical anecdotes and stories from the Buddhist canon. Nichiren incorporated several hundred of these anecdotes and took liberty to freely embellish some of them; a few of the stories he provided do not appear in other collections and could be original.[30]: 47–50 [179]
Another category of his letters follow the genres of Japanesezuihitsu, lyrical and loosely organized essays that combine personal reflection and poetic language, or personal diaries (nikki bungaku). Nichiren was a master of this genre and these colloquial works reveal his highly personal and charismatic method of proselytization as well as his deep caring for his followers.[30]: 47–50, 52
Nichiren used his letters as a means to inspire key supporters. About one hundred followers are identified as recipients and several received between 5 and 20 of them. The recipients tended to be of the warrior class and only scattered references appear about his lower status followers, many of whom were illiterate. The series of letters he wrote his followers during the "Atsuhara Affair" of 1279 provide a case study of how he used personal written communications to direct a response to the government's actions and to keep his followers steadfast during the ordeal.[30]: 55n [82]: 156n, 158
Against a backdrop of earlier Buddhist teachings that deny the possibility of enlightenment to women or reserve that possibility for life after death, Nichiren is highly sympathetic to women. Based on various passages from theLotus Sutra, Nichiren asserts that "Other sutras are written for men only. This sutra is for everyone."[180][181][182]
Ninety of his extant letters, nearly a fifth of the total, were addressed to female correspondents.[183]Nichiren Shu has published separate volumes with those writings.[184] In these letters Nichiren plays particular attention to the instantaneous attainment of enlightenment of theDragon King's daughter in the "Devadatta" (Twelfth) chapter of theLotus Sutra and displays deep concern for the fears and worries of his female disciples.[185][186]
There is a lively scholarly debate as to the authenticity of many writings attributed to Nichiren. Such disputed works include theSandai hihō honjōji and theOngi kuden.[20] Some Japanese scholars initially questioned whether any work which containedhongaku thought could be Nichiren's. These include important writings sent to the Tendai monk Sairen-bo which also show some stylistic differences to other writings by Nichiren.[122] More recent scholarship by authors like Jacqueline Stone have argued that this single criterion is not enough for rejecting a work's authenticity.[122] Thus, according to Sueki, the authenticity of theRisshōkan jō (Treatise on right contemplation) is highly probable.[122] In 1997, Ito Zuiei used computer analysis to study theSandai hihō honjōji and argued that it is possibly authentic. Thus, the scholarship on Nichiren's "problematic" works is still up for debate and continues to change.[122]
Among all of the preachers of the dharma of the Lotus Sutra over the past two thousand years, there has been no one like Nichiren. In the long history of the sutra in Japan, he is the most famous—and the most infamous.
Buddhism and the state have always been closely allied in Japan. Nichiren insisted, however, that theLotus Sutra was the only true Buddhism, that the state should support only this form of Buddhism, and that it should abolish all other Buddhist sects as heretical.
Realizing himself to be an avatar of Jōgyō Boddhisattva, Nichiren strived to spread theLotus Sutra.
TheLotus Sutra states that this person would be a reincarnation of Jogyo bosatsu, a status that Nichiren did, in fact, claim for himself on numerous occasions.
Nichiren, of course, it is possibly the most outstanding exemplar of the prophetic voice in the entire Buddhist tradition. His fiery denunciations of both the religious and the political status quo of this time and his dogged insistence upon their total displacement earned him the hatred of the powerful and the love of the common people.
Uchimura compares him to Luther on two counts. The first is his concern over the wrongs of the religious establishment, and the second is his adoption of a single book as the source of his faith. He depended on the Lotus Sutra, Uchimura begins, much as Luther relied on the Bible....In sum, Nichiren was 'a soul sincere to its very core, the honestest of men, the bravest of Japanese.'
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{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)Nichiren called this third realmdaisan hōmon, meaning the third sphere of 8akyamuni's teaching. The teachings in this realm of the Lotus Sutra emphasize the need to endure the trials of life and to practice the true law. In short, they advocate human activity in the real world, or bodhisattva practices. The eternal Buddha is also considered anew in this context, and it is said that Sakyamuni himself endlessly undertook bodhisattva practices. This third realm emphasizing bodhisattva practices suggests the meaning and purpose of human existence in this world.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)When all people throughout the land enter the one Buddha vehicle, and the Wonderful Dharma [of the Lotus] alone flourishes, because the people all chant Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō, the wind will not thrash the branches, nor the rain fall hard enough to break clods. The age will become like the reigns of [the Chinese sage kings] Yao and Shun. In the present life, inauspicious calamities will be banished, and people will obtain the art of longevity. When the principle becomes manifest that both persons and dharmas "neither age nor die," then each of you, behold! There can be no doubt of the sutra's promise of "peace and security in the present world."
Because of his concern for the welfare of the country and exaltation of the truth of the Lotus Sutra as interpreted by Tendai, he appears to be intolerant, denouncing all other sects as false. He is famous for Four Denunciations in which he outlined the errors. Shingon is false because it destroys the nations. For Nichiren it was false magic. The nation would be protected by the Lotus. Historically the Japanese government employed Shingon rites whenever there was a disaster affecting the country. According to him, Zen is a teaching of devils because it held that one could become enlightened apart from scriptures. In Zen truth is beyond words and therefore it rejects the ultimacy of the words of Buddha. Pure Land nembutsu is a false way of salvation. Salvation comes only through the Lotus Sutra, particularly for Nichiren, reciting its title: Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō. The Ritsu or Precept sect is wrong because it is a thief. Here Nichiren apparently objected to the funds given this sect for social welfare activity. In any case, none of these prominent sects advocated the centrality of the Lotus Sutra. Eventually he came to include Tendai itelf because it was combined with Shingon teachings and rites. For him any compromise on the Lotus made them all false. Nichiren was a good scholar of history and knew the basic tenets of these groups, but he faulted them in their relation to the Lotus. His erudition is embodied in voluminous writings, especially five major texts which set forth the essence of his faith Also he wrote numerous letters, sharing his ideas and sentiments with followers.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)One recent translation collection of Nichiren's work appears is the work of Nichirenshū Overseas Propagation Promotion Association (NOPPA) and is published by Nichiren Buddhist International Center. Now in its second edition, it was published in 2021 and contains seven volumes:[1]
Other translations of Nichiren's work into English include:
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