After about 400 years ofOttoman rule, the city was liberated in 1878 and became part of thePrincipality of Serbia, though not without great bloodshed—remnants of which can be found throughout the city. Today, Niš is one of the most important economic centers in Serbia, especially in the electronics, mechanical engineering, textile, and tobacco industries.Constantine the Great Airport is Niš's international airport. The city is also the seat of theUniversity of Niš, theEparchy of Niš and the Command ofSerbian Army.
In 2013, the city was host to the celebration of 1700 years of Constantine'sEdict of Milan.[10]
Name
Niš was known as Нишь[11] or Ньшь[12] (Nyšь) inOld Serbian andOld Bulgarian.Nāissus is theAncient name of the city.[13] Naissus is itself probably a derivative of the older *Nāviskos, from *Nāvia ("trough valley"), theCeltic name of theNišava River, which flows through the city. Inhistorical sources, the town is mentioned as Naissus, Ναϊσσός, Naessus, urbs Naisitana, Нишь, Ньшь, Nisso and Nix.[12]
Niš evolved from the toponym attested in Ancient Greek asΝΑΙΣΣΟΣ (Naissos) achieving its present form via phonetic changes inProto-Albanian and thereafter the placename entered Slavic.[14][15][16][17][18]Nish might indicate that Proto-Albanian was spoken in the region in pre-Slavic antiquity.[19] According to Ismajli (2015), when this settlement happened is a matter of debate, as Proto-Albanians might have moved relatively late in antiquity in the area which might have been an eastern expansion of Proto-Albanian settlement as no other toponyms known in antiquity in the area presuppose an Albanian development.[20] It cannot be ruled out however that the development ofNish <Naiss- may also represent a regional development in late antiquity Balkans which, while closely related to Albanian (i.e. characterized by the same phonetic system), may not be identical with it.[21] Attempts have been made to explain the place name in various ways as "a purely Slavic development", such as by Serbian linguistAleksandar Loma,[22][23] however, Austrian linguist Joachim Matzinger, who maintains the Albanian transmission ofNaiss > Niš, states that "a discussion with historical South Slavic linguistics is an urgent desideratum".[22]
Remains of the luxurious residence palace ofMediana, erected by Constantine I near his birth town ofNaissus.
The first settlement on the site of today's Niš may have been founded by theCelts at the end of the 3rd century BC.[13][24] There is very little archaeological evidence however which can be used to reconstruct a pre-Roman history of Niš.[25] During theRoman era, the city of Naissus became a large urban center.[13] During the Roman conquest of theBalkans, between 168 and 75 BC, the city was used as a base of operations. Naissus was first mentioned in Roman documents near the beginning of the 2nd century CE, and was considered a place worthy of note in theGeography ofPtolemy of Alexandria.[citation needed]
The Romans occupied the town during theDardanian campaign (75–73 BC), and set up a legionary camp in the city.[26] The city, calledrefugia andvici in pre-Roman relation, as a result of its strategic position (the Thracians were based to the south[26]) developed as an importantgarrison and market town in the province ofMoesia Superior.[27] In 169 AD, Naissus was established as amunicipium and fromDiocletian onwards it belonged to the province ofDardania.[13] In 272, the future EmperorConstantine the Great was born in Naissus. Constantine created theDacia Mediterranea province, of which Naissus was the capital, which also includedRemesiana on theVia Militaris and the towns ofPautalia and Germania. He lived in Naissus briefly from 316 to 322.[28]
The city was of great importance for theConstantinian dynasty. It is the birthplace ofConstantine the Great who turned it from a middle-sized town to a large city with many public buildings. The city flourished greatly in the Constantinian period. A bronze bust of Constantine decorated city. It was his temporary residence and the city where he promulgated many laws, preserved in theTheodosian code. In Constantinian narratives, Naissus was the city where the usurperVetranio abdicated toConstantius II after a powerful speech he gave to the rebel armies.Julian, the last Constantinian emperor, used Naissus, which had arms factories, as his base in the civil war and recruitedIllyrians and others as soldiers for his campaign.[29]
In 364 AD, the imperial VillaMediana 3 km (2 mi) was the site where emperors Valentinian and Valens met and divided the Roman Empire into halves which they would rule as co-emperors.[30]
It was besieged by theHuns in 441 and devastated in 448, and again in 480 when the partially-rebuilt town was demolished by theBarbarians. Byzantine EmperorJustinian I restored the town but it was destroyed by theAvars once again. TheSlavs, in their campaign against Byzantium, conquered Niš and settled here in 540.
In 805, the town and its surroundings were taken by Bulgarian EmperorKrum.[31] In the 11th century Byzantium reclaimed control over Naissus and the surrounding area.
Siege of Niš,Crusaders attacking Naissus on 4 July 1096
KingSolomon of Hungary and PrinceGéza marched along the valley of the riverGreat Morava as far as Niš. The Hungarians seized theByzantine city without any resistance in 1072.[32] During thePeople's Crusade, on 3 July 1096,Peter the Hermit clashed with Byzantine forces at Naissus.Manuel I fortified the town, but under his successorAndronikos I it was seized by the Hungarian kingBéla III. Byzantine control was eventually reestablished, but in 1185 it fell under Serbian control. By 1188, Niš became the capital of Serbian kingStefan Nemanja.[33] On 27 July 1189, Nemanja received German emperorFrederick Barbarossa and his 100,000 crusaders at Niš.[34] Niš is mentioned in descriptions of Serbia underVukan in 1202, highlighting its special status.[35] In 1203,Kaloyan of Bulgaria annexed Niš.[36]Stefan Nemanjić later regained the region.
Ottoman period
The fall of theSerbian Empire, which was conquered by Ottoman SultanMurad I in 1385, decided the fate of Niš as well. After a 25-day-long siege the city fell to the Ottomans. It was returned to Serbian rule in 1443. Niš again fell under Ottoman rule in 1448, and remained thusly for 241 years. During Ottoman rule Niš was a seat of the empire's military and civil administration. ASilesian traveler stated in 1596 that the route from Sofia to Niš was littered with corpses and described the gates of Niš as bedecked with the freshly-severed heads of poor Bulgarian peasants.[37] In 1689, Niš was seized by the Austrian army during theGreat Turkish War, but the Ottomans regained it in 1690. In 1737, Niš wasagain seized by the Austrians, who attempted to rebuild the fortifications around the city. The same year, the Ottomans reclaimed the city without resistance. The existing fortification is of Ottoman Turkish origin, dating from the first decades of the 18th century (1719–1723). It is well known as one of the most significant and best preserved monuments of this kind in the mid-Balkans. The Fortress was erected on the site of earlier fortifications – the ancient Roman, Byzantine, and later yet Medieval forts.[38]
Bali-begova mosque
During theFirst Serbian uprising in 1809, Serbian revolutionaries attempted to liberate Niš in theBattle of Čegar. After the defeat of the Serbian forces, the Ottoman commander of Niš ordered the heads of the slain Serbs mounted on a tower to serve as a warning. The structure became known asSkull Tower (Serbian:Ćele Kula).[39] In 1821, the Ottomans arrested the Bishop of Niš, Milentija, as well as 200 Serbian patriots, on charges of preparing an uprising in the Niš area in support of theGreek War of Independence. On June 13 of that year, Bishop Milentija and other Serbian leaders were hanged in public.
In the 19th century Niš was an important town, but populated by Bulgarians in the 19th century, when theNiš rebellion broke out in 1841.[40] According to Ottoman statistics during theTanzimat the population ofSanjak of Niš was treated as Bulgarian,[41] and according to French travelers such asJérôme-Adolphe Blanqui andAmi Boue in 1837/1841. According to all authors between 1840 and 1872 the delineation between Bulgarians and Serbs is undisputed and ran north of Nis,[42] although one author Cyprien Robert claims that half of the population of the town was made up by Serbians.[43] Serbian cartographers of the time (such asDimitrije Davidović in 1828 andMilan Savić in 1878) also acceptedSouth Morava river as such delineation and added Niš outside the borders of the Serbian people.[42][44] In 1862 some Muslim families from Belgrade and Smederevo settled in Nis due to theforced displacement of Muslims in the Principality of Serbia.[45] The urban population of Niš consisted of 17,107 Christian and 4,291 Muslim males, with total number of 3,500 Serbian houses and 2,000 Muslim houses. Muslim population of Niš consisted mainly ofTurks, of which a part were of Albanian origin, and the rest were MuslimAlbanians and Muslim Romani.[46][47]
Niš was finally taken by the Serbian Army during theSerbo–Ottoman War of 1876–1878. The battle for the liberation of Niš started on 29 December 1877, and the Serbian Army entered Niš on 11 January 1878, and it became a part of Serbia. The Albanian quarter was burned and some of the town's Muslim population, which the majority were Albanians, wereforced to flee to the Ottomanvilayet of Kosovo, resettling inPristina, while others went to Skopje.[50][46][51][47] The descendants of the Albanians that resettled in parts of nowKosovo, are now known asMuhaxhir.[52] The number of remaining Muslims counted were 1,168, with many being Muslim Romani, out of the pre-war ca. 8,500.[53][47] The Albanian bazaar in Niš was destroyed. 12 out of 15 mosques and about 1,300 out of 4,000 houses were torn down, while the rest of the Muslim houses were sold at discounted prices. The destruction of buildings owned by Muslims, Jews and recalcitrant Christians was followed by the widening of streets and other measures to "modernise" the town and weaken its Ottoman outlook. Albanian traders who wanted to stay were subjected to a targeted campaign of murder. The Serbian authorities subjected the Jewish community to extortion of money, arbitrary arrests, confiscation of property, forced labour and desecration of graves.[54] The demographics of Niš underwent change whereby Serbs who formed half the urban population prior to 1878 became 80 percent in 1884.[55][54]
Independent Serbia
In the following years, the city saw rapid development. The city library was founded in 1879 and the famous Serbian writerStevan Sremac, a native of Niš, was its first clerk.[56][57] The first hotel,Europe, was built in 1879; shortly after the first district hospital[58] and the first bank started operating in 1881.[59] In 1878, the first Grammar School (Gimnazija),[60] in 1882 the Teacher Training College, and in 1894, the Girls' College were founded in Niš.[59] The City Hall was built from 1882 to 1887.
In 1883, Kosta Čendaš established the first printing house. In 1884, the first newspaper in the cityNiški Vesnik was started.[59] In 1884, Jovan Apel built a brewery.[61] A railway line to Niš was built in 1884, as well as the city's railway station; on 8 August 1884, the first train arrived from Belgrade.[citation needed] In 1885, Niš became the last station of theOrient Express, until the railroad was built between Niš and Sofia in 1888. In 1887, theNiš Theatre Sinđelić was built.[59]
In 1897 Mita Ristić founded the Nitex textile factory.[59] In 1905 the female painterNadežda Petrović established the Sićevoart colony.[59] The first film was screened in 1897, and the first permanent cinema started operating in 1906.[59] The hydroelectric dam inSićevo Gorge on the Nišava was built in 1908;[59] at the time, it was the largest in Serbia. The airfield was built in 1912 on the Trupale field, and the first aeroplane arrived on 29 December 1912. The city's museum was founded in 1913.[citation needed]
During theFirst Balkan War, Niš was the seat of The Main Headquarters of the Serbian Army, which led military operations against theOttoman Empire. InWorld War I, Niš was the wartime capital of Serbia, hosting the Government and the National Assembly, untilCentral Powers conquered Serbia in November 1915, when the city was ceded to Bulgaria.[59] After the breakthrough of theSalonika front, the First Serbian Army commanded by generalPetar Bojović liberated Niš on 12 October 1918.[62]
In the first few years after the war, Niš was recovering from the damage. In 1921, Niš became the centre of the Region (oblast), governed by a grand-župan, appointed by royal decree. From 1929 to 1941, Niš was the capital of theMorava Banovina of theKingdom of Yugoslavia. The tram system in Niš started to run in November 1930. The national airlineAeroput included Niš as a regular destination for the route Belgrade—Niš—Skopje—Thessaloniki in 1930. During the time of German occupation in World War II, the first NaziCrveni Krst concentration camp in Yugoslavia was in Niš. About 30,000 people passed through this camp, of whom over 10,000 were shot on nearby Bubanj hill. On 12 February 1942, 147 prisoners staged a mass escape. In 1944, the city washeavily bombed by the Allies.[63] In September 1943, the Germans established the Dulag 413 transit camp forItalian Military Internees in the city.[64]
On 14 October 1944, after a long and exhausting battle, the 7th German SS Division 'Prinz Eugen' was defeated and Niš was liberated byBulgarian Army,[65][66][67] andPartisans. The city was also the site of a unique and accidentalfriendly fireair war on November 7, 1944 between the air forces of the United States andSoviet Union. On 23 June 1948, Niš was the site of a catastrophic flood during which theNišava river's water level raised by an unprecedented 5.5 meters.[68]
After World War II, theUniversity of Niš was founded on 15 June 1965.
Niš main square.
Over the course of the1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, Niš was subject to airstrikes on 40 occasions.[69] On 7 May 1999, the city was the site of aNATOcluster bomb raid which killed 16 civilians.[69] By the end of the NATO bombing campaign, a total of 56 people in Niš had been killed from airstrikes.[69]
The road running from the North, from Western and Central Europe and Belgrade down to the Morava River valley, forks into two major lines at Niš: the southern line, leading toThessalonica andAthens, and the eastern one leading towardsSofia andIstanbul.[citation needed]
Niš is situated at the 43°19' latitude north and 21°54' longitude east, in theNišava valley, near the spot where it joins theSouth Morava. The main city square, the city's central part, is at 194 m (636 ft)above sea level. The highest point in the city area is "Sokolov kamen" (Falcon's rock) on theSuva Planina (Dry Mountain) (1,523 m (4,997 ft)) while the lowest spot is atTrupale, near the mouth of the Nišava (173 m (568 ft)). The city covers 596.71 square kilometres (230 sq mi) of five municipalities. Below Niska Banja and Nis, under the ground is a natural source of hot water, unique potential of clean and renewable geothermal energy at the surface of up to 65 square kilometers. According to some sources, the natural reservoir is at a depth of 500 to 800 meters, and the estimated capacity is about 400 million cubic meters of thermal mineral water.[71]
Climate
Niš has ahumid subtropical climate, but with continental influences. Average annual temperature in the area of Niš is 12.4 °C (54.3 °F). July is the warmest month of the year, with an average of 23.1 °C (73.6 °F). The coldest month is January, averaging at 0.9 °C (33.6 °F). The average of the annual rainfall is 613.8 mm (24.17 in). The averagebarometer value is 992.74 mb. On average, there are 134 days with rain and snow cover lasts for 41 days.
Average temperatures in Niš are rising and they are about 1 °C higher in last 15 years than in period from 1991 to 2020. Number of snow days and days with frost is decreasing, since January is the only month with average lows below 0 °C.[citation needed]
According to the final results from the 2022 census, the population of city proper of Niš was 182,797,[3] while itsadministrative area had a population of 260,237.[3]
The composition of population by sex and average age:[79]
Male – 126,645 (40.90 years) and
Female – 133,592 (42.81 years).
A total of 120,562 citizens (older than 15 years) have secondary education (53.81%), while the 51,471 citizens have higher education (23.0%). Of those with higher education, 34,409 (15.4%) have university education.[80]
The city of Niš consists of five municipalities. The first four municipalities are in the urban area of Niš, whileNiška Banja is a suburban municipality. Before 2002, the city of Niš had only two municipalities, one of them named "Niš" and another named "Niška Banja".
The city of Niš is the administrative, industrial, commercial, financial and cultural center of the south-eastern part of Republic of Serbia. The position of Niš is strategically important, at the intersection of European highway and railway networks connecting Europe with Asia. Niš is easily accessible, having an airport –Niš Constantine the Great Airport and being a point of intersection of numerous railroad and highway lines.
It is in Niš that the trunk road running from the north down theMorava River valley forks into two major lines:
and the east one, running along theNišava and theMarica, leading towards Sofia and Istanbul, and further on, towards the Near East.
These roads have been widely known from ancient times, because they represented the beaten tracks along which peoples, goods and armies moved. Known as 'Via Militaris' inRoman andByzantine periods, or 'Constantinople road' in Middle Ages, these roads still represent major European traffic arteries. Niš thus stands at a point of intersection of the roads connecting Asia Minor to Europe, and theBlack Sea to the Mediterranean. Nis had been a relatively developed city in the former Yugoslavia. In 1981, its GDP per capita was 110% of the Yugoslav average.[82]
Niš is one of the most important industrial centers in Serbia, well known for its tobacco, electronics, construction, mechanical-engineering, textile, nonferrous-metal, food-processing and rubber-goods industries.
Among the manufacturing companies which had a huge impact during the second half of the 20th century on Niš's development are:EI Niš (electronics industry),Mechanical Industry Niš, "Građevinar" (construction company),Niš Tobacco Factory, "Nitex – Niš" (textile industry), "Niš Brewery" (beverages) and "Žitopek" (bakery). Other prominent companies which went bankrupt during the 1990s and 2000s are: "Vulkan" (rubber-goods manufacturer), "NISSAL" (nonferrous-metal industry).
Niš is strategically between theMorava river valley in North and theVardar river valley in the south, on the main route between Greece and Central Europe. In the Niš area, this major transportation and communication route is linked with the natural corridor formed by theNišava river valley, which runs Eastwards in the direction ofSofia andIstanbul. The city has been a passing station for theOrient Express.
The first highways date back to the 1950s when Niš was linked with capital Belgrade through theBrotherhood and Unity Highway, the first in Southeastern Europe.
Historically, because of its location, the city had always great importance in the region. The first to take advantage of it was theRoman Empire that built the important roadVia Militaris, linking the city withSingidunum (current Belgrade) to the North andConstantinople (current Istanbul) to the southeast. Nowadays, the city is connected by the highwayE75 with Belgrade and Central Europe in north, andSkopje,Thessaloniki andAthens in the south. The roadE80 connects Niš with Sofia, Istanbul towards the Middle East, andPristina,Montenegro and theAdriatic Sea to the West. The roadE771 connects the city withZaječar,Kladovo andDrobeta-Turnu Severin in Romania.
The city is also a major regional railway junction linking Serbia to Sofia and Istanbul.
TheNiš Constantine the Great Airport is the second most important airport in Serbia. The first airfield serving the city of Niš was established in 1910, near the village ofDonje Međurovo. In the 1930s then-national airline companyAeroput used the airport for civil service. In 1935 Aeroput included a stop in Niš in its route linking Belgrade with Skoplje.[87]
The city public transportation consists nowadays of 13 bus lines. A tram system existed in Niš between 1930 and 1958.[88]Niš Bus Station is the city's largest and main bus station which offers both local urban and intercity transport to international destinations. The largest intercity bus carrier based in the city isNiš-Ekspres, which operates to various cities and villages inSerbia,Montenegro, andBosnia and Herzegovina.[citation needed]
Bubanj – Monument to fallen Yugoslav World War II fighters, forming the shape of three clenched fists. The place where 10,000 civilian hostages from Niš and south Serbia were brutally murdered by German Nazis.
Kalča, City passage and Gorča – Trade centers situated in Milana Obrenovića Street.
Memorial Chapel in the memory ofNATObombing victims – The chapel was built by local authorities while the monument was built by the State government in 1999. They are situated in Sumatovacka street nearNiš Fortress.
Niš Fortress – The remaining fortification was built by the Turks, and dates from the first decades of the 18th century (1719–23). It is situated in the city center.
The fortress-cafes – They are situated near Stambol gate (the main gate of the fortress).
Niška Banja (Niš spa) – A very popular spa during the summer season. It is 10 km (6 mi) from city center on the road leading toSofia, in the bottom ofSuva Planina Mountain.
Tinkers Alley – An old urban downtown zone in today's Kopitareva Street, built in the first half of the 18th century. It was a street full of tinkers and other craftsmen, but today it is packed with cafes and restaurants.
Skull Tower (Ćele Kula) – A monument to the Serbian revolutionaries (1804–13); a tower made out of skulls of Serbian uprisers, killed and decapitated by the Ottomans. It is situated onZoran Đinđić Boulevard, on the oldConstantinople road leading to Sofia.
Sultans Trail Long-distance hiking and biking route from Vienna to İstanbul runs through Niš.
Architecture and monuments
Buildings in Niš are constantly being built. Niš is the second city in Serbia afterBelgrade by number of high-rises.[citation needed]The Ambassador Hotel is one of the tallest buildings in Niš, but there are also other buildings like TV5 Tower.
The biggest stadium in Niš is theStadion Čair, with a total seating-capacity of 18,151 after renovations.[89] The stadium is part of the Čair Sports Complex that also includes an indoor swimming pool and anindoor arena. Niš was one of four towns which hosting the2012 European Men's Handball Championship.
Notable residents
The people listed below were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with the city of Niš, and its surrounding metropolitan area.
Constantius I, Roman Emperor, father of Constantine I
Constantine I, the great, (Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus) – ruled 306 to 337
Stevan Sremac (1855–1906), writer, came to Niš shortly after its liberation from the Turkish rule; wrote about life in old Niš (Ivkova slava,Zona Zamfirova).
Georgios Sinas (Greek: Γεώργιος Σίνας,German:Georg Sina; 20 November 1783 – 18 May 1856) was an Austrian-Greek entrepreneur and banker. He became a national benefactor ofGreece, he was born in Niš.
Diplomatic missions
The city of Niš, after Belgrade, has the largest diplomatic corps in Serbia. Bulgaria has General Consulate in Niš. Until 2010, there was also a Consulate General of Greece.[90] Diplomatic agreements were given to five prominent citizens of Niš, who acquired the title of honorary consul. The United Kingdom, Hungary, France, Slovakia and Austria have chosen Nis as their honorary consuls, appreciating their commitment and contribution to strengthening ties and cooperation in various fields with these countries.[91]
^Данчо Господинов и кол. (2003) История на града Лом и Ломска околия. Изток-Запад,ISBN9789548945691, стр. 387.
^abMišić, Siniša, ed. (2010).Leksikon gradova i trgova srednjovekovnih srpskih zemalja — prema pisanim izvorima [Lexicon of towns and market places in the medieval Serbian lands — according to written sources]. Belgrade: Zavod. p. 188.
^Rusakov, Alexander (2017)."Albanian". In Kapović, Mate; Giacalone Ramat, Anna; Ramat, Paolo (eds.).The Indo-European Languages. Routledge. p. 556.ISBN9781317391531.
The contemporary form of the name of ancient Naissos, an important place in Dardania which is now called Niš, is best explained with the help of the historical phonetics of the Albanian language. For more see:Vladimir I. Georgiev (1981) Introduction to the History of the Indo-European Languages. Publishing House of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, p. 142,ISBN9535172611.
Hamp, Eric P. "Albanian" p. 1663 in Part 2, The study of languages, edited by Einar Haugen, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2019, pp. 1626-1692.https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111684970-016
^Ismajli, Rexhep (2015). Eqrem Basha (ed.).Studime për historinë e shqipes në kontekst ballkanik [Studies on the History of Albanian in the Balkan context](PDF) (in Albanian). Prishtinë: Kosova Academy of Sciences and Arts, special editions CLII, Section of Linguistics and Literature. pp. 109, 263.
^abMatzinger, Joachim (2016). "Die albanische Autochthoniehypothese aus der Sicht der Sprachwissenschaft": "Es wird versucht, den Ortsnamen auf verschiedene Weise auch als rein slawische Entwicklung zu erklären, siehe Aleksandar LOMA [...] Das letzte Wort ist hier noch nicht gesprochen, eine Diskussion mit der historischen südslawischen Linguistik ist ein dringendes Desiderat!", p. 14
^"NİŞ".TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi (in Turkish). Retrieved8 December 2023.
^Vucinich, Wayne S. (1982). "The Serbian Insurgents and the Russo-Turkish War of 1809–1812". In Vucinich, Wayne S. (ed.).First Serbian Uprising, 1804–1813. New York City: Columbia University Press. p. 141.ISBN978-0-930888-15-2.
^Pinson, Mark (May 1975). "Ottoman Bulgaria in the First Tanzimat Period: The Revolts in Nish (1841) and Vidin (1850)".Middle Eastern Studies.11 (2):103–146.doi:10.1080/00263207508700291.JSTOR4282564.
^abJagodić, Miloš (1998)."The Emigration of Muslims from the New Serbian Regions 1877/1878".Balkanologie.2 (2).doi:10.4000/balkanologie.265.S2CID140637086. para. 6. "According to the information about the language spoken among the Muslims in the cities, we can see of which nationality they were. So, the Muslim population of Niš and Pirot consisted mostly of Turks; para. 11. "The Turks have been mostly city dwellers. It is certain, however, that part of them was of Albanian origin, because of the well-known fact that the Albanians have been very easily assimilated with Turks in the cities."; para. 23, 30, 49.
^abcGeniş, Şerife; Maynard, Kelly Lynne (2009). "Formation of a Diasporic Community: The history of migration and resettlement of Muslim Albanians in the Black Sea Region of Turkey".Middle Eastern Studies.45 (4): 556.doi:10.1080/00263200903009619.S2CID143742189. "that the Muslim Albanians of Nish were forced to leave in 1878, and that at that time most of these Nishan Albanians migrated south into Kosovo, although some went to Skopje in Macedonia."
^Ágoston, Gábor; Masters, Bruce Alan (2009).Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire: Facts on File library of world history. Infobase Publishing. p. 104.ISBN978-1438110257.
^Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire; Gabor Agoston, Bruce Alan Masters; 2009,p. 104
^Judah, Tim (2008).Kosovo: What everyone needs to know. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 35.ISBN9780199704040. "This was the year that saw Serbia expanding southward and taking Nis. The Albanian quarter was burned and Albanians from the surrounding villages forced to flee."
^Pllana, Emin (1985). "Les raisons de la manière de l'exode des refugies albanais du territoire du sandjak de Nish a Kosove (1878–1878) [The reasons for the manner of the exodus of Albanian refugees from the territory of the Sanjak of Nish to Kosovo (1878–1878)] ".Studia Albanica.1: 189–190.
^abHoare, M.A. (2024).Serbia: A Modern History. Hurst Publishers. p. 224.
^Stefanović, Djordje (2005). "Seeing the Albanians through Serbian eyes: The Inventors of the Tradition of Intolerance and their Critics, 1804–1939".European History Quarterly.35 (3):465–492.doi:10.1177/0265691405054219.hdl:2440/124622.S2CID144497487. "Prior to 1878, the Serbs comprised not more than one half of the population of Nis, the largest city in the region; by 1884 the Serbian share rose to 80 per cent."
^Megargee, Geoffrey P.; Overmans, Rüdiger; Vogt, Wolfgang (2022).The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos 1933–1945. Volume IV. Indiana University Press, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. p. 122.ISBN978-0-253-06089-1.
^Christopher Chant.The Encyclopedia of Codenames of World War II (Routledge Revivals; 2013);ISBN1134647875, p. 209.
^Elisabeth Barker et al.,British Political and Military Strategy in Central, Eastern and Southern Europe in 1944, Springer (1988);ISBN1349193798, p. 249.
^Jozo Tomasevich.War and Revolution in Yugoslavia: 1941–1945, Volume 2, Stanford University Press (2001);ISBN0804779244, p. 156.
