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Members of theSahaptin language group,[4] the Nimíipuu were the dominant people of theColumbia Plateau for much of that time,[5] especially after acquiring the horses that led them to breed theAppaloosa horse in the 18th century.
Prior to first contact withEuropean colonial people the Nimíipuu were economically and culturally influential in trade and war, interacting with other indigenous nations in a vast network from the western shores ofOregon andWashington, the high plains ofMontana, and the northernGreat Basin in southernIdaho and northernNevada.[6][7]
French explorers and trappers indiscriminately used and popularized the name "Nez Percé" for the Nimíipuu and nearbyChinook. The name translates as "pierced nose", but only the Chinook used that form of body modification.[8]
Cut off from most of their horticultural sites throughout theCamas Prairie[3] by an 1863 treaty (subsequently known as the "Thief Treaty" or "Steal Treaty" among the Nimíipuu),[9][8] confinement to reservations in Idaho, Washington and OklahomaIndian Territory after theNez Perce War of 1877, andDawes Act of 1887 land allotments, the Nez Perce remain as a distinct culture and political economic influence within and outside their reservation.[10][11][12][13][14]
As afederally recognized tribe, theNez Perce Tribe of Idaho govern theirNative reservation inIdaho through a central government headquartered inLapwai known as the Nez Perce Tribal Executive Committee (NPTEC).[15][16] They are one of five federally recognized tribes in the state of Idaho. The Nez Perce only own 12% of their own reservation and some Nez Perce lease land to farmers or loggers. Today, hatching, harvesting and eating salmon is an important cultural and economic strength of the Nez Perce through full ownership or co-management of various salmon fish hatcheries, such as theKooskia National Fish Hatchery inKooskia or theDworshak National Fish Hatchery inOrofino.[17][18][19]
Some still speak their traditional language. The Tribe owns and operates two casinos along theClearwater River (inKamiah and east ofLewiston),[20][21] health clinics, a police force and court, community centers, salmon fisheries, radio station, and other institutions that promote economic and culturalself-determination.[22]
Their name for themselves isnimíipuu (pronounced[nimiːpuː]), meaning, "we, the people", in their language, part of theSahaptin family.[23]
Nez Percé is anexonym given byFrench Canadianfur traders who visited the area regularly in the late 18th century, meaning literally "pierced nose". English-speaking traders and settlers adopted the name in turn. Since the late 20th century, the Nez Perce identify most often asNimíipuu in Sahaptin.[23] This has also been spelled Nee-Me-Poo. The Lakota/Dakota named them theWatopala, orCanoe people, fromWatopa. After Nez Perce became a more common name, they changed it toWatopahlute. This comes frompahlute, nasal passage, and is simply a play on words. If translated literally, it would come out as either "Nasal Passage of the Canoe" (Watopa-pahlute) or "Nasal Passage of the Grass" (Wato-pahlute).[24] The Assiniboine called themPasú oȟnógA wįcaštA, the Arikarasinitčiškataríwiš.[25] The tribe also uses the term "Nez Perce", as does the United States Government in its official dealings with them, and contemporary historians. Older historicalethnological works and documents use the French spelling ofNez Percé, with thediacritic. The original French pronunciation is[nepɛʁse], with three syllables.
The interpretersSacagawea andToussaint Charbonneau of theLewis and Clark Expedition mistakenly identified this people as the Nez Perce when the team encountered the tribe in 1805. Writing in 1889, anthropologistAlice Fletcher, who the U.S. government had sent to Idaho to allot the Nez Perce Reservation, explained the mistaken naming. She wrote,
It is never easy to come at the name of an Indian or even of an Indian tribe. A tribe has always at least two names; one they call themselves by and one by which they are known to other tribes. All the tribes living west of the Rocky Mountains were called "Chupnit-pa-lu", which means people of the pierced noses; it also means emerging from the bushes or forest; the people from the woods. The tribes on the Columbia river used to pierce the nose and wear in it some ornament as you have seen some old fashioned white ladies wear in their ears. Lewis and Clark had with them an interpreter whosewife was a Shoshone or Snake woman and so it came about that when it was asked "What Indians are these?" the answer was "They are 'Chupnit-pa-lu'" and it was written down in the journal; spelled rather queerly, for white people's ears do not always catch Indian tones and of course the Indians could not spell any word.[26]
In his journals,William Clark referred to the people as the Chopunnish/ˈtʃoʊpənɪʃ/, a transliteration of a Sahaptin term. According to D.E. Walker in 1998, writing for theSmithsonian, this term is an adaptation of the termcú·pʼnitpeľu (the Nez Perce people). The term is formed fromcú·pʼnit (piercing with a pointed object) andpeľu (people).[27] By contrast, theNez Perce Language Dictionary[28] has a different analysis than did Walker for the termcú·pʼnitpeľu. The prefixcú- means "in single file". This prefix, combined with the verb-piní, "to come out (e.g. of forest, bushes, ice)". Finally, with the suffix of-pelú, meaning "people or inhabitants of". Together, these three elements:cú- + -piní +pelú =cú·pʼnitpeľu, or "the People Walking Single File Out of the Forest".[29] Nez Perceoral tradition indicates the name "cú·pʼnitpeľu" meant "we walked out of the woods or walked out of the mountains" and referred to the time before the Nez Perce had horses.[30]
TheNez Perce language, or Nimiipuutímt, is aSahaptian language related to the several dialects ofSahaptin. The Sahaptian sub-family is one of the branches of thePlateau Penutian family, which in turn may be related to a largerPenutian grouping.
In 1800, the Nez Perce had more than 70 permanent villages, ranging from 30 to 200 individuals, depending on the season and social grouping. Archeologists have identified a total of about 300 related sites including camps and villages, mostly in the Salmon River Canyon. In 1805, the Nez Perce were the largest tribe on theColumbia River Plateau, with a population of about 6,000. By the beginning of the 20th century, the Nez Perce had declined to about 1,800 due toepidemics, conflicts with non-Indians, and other factors.[32] The tribe reports having more than 3,500 members in 2021.[1]
The Nez Perce had many allies and trading partners among neighboring peoples, but also enemies and ongoing antagonist tribes.
To the north of them lived theCoeur d’Alene (Schitsu'umsh) (’Iskíicu’mix),Spokane (Sqeliz) (Heyéeynimuu/Heyeynimu - "Steelhead [Eating] People"), and further north theKalispel (Ql̓ispé) (Qem’éespel’uu/Q'emespelu, both meaning "Camas People" or "Camas Eaters"),Colville (Páapspaloo/Papspelu - "Fir Tree People") andKootenay / Kootenai (Ktunaxa) (Kuuspel’úu/Kuuspelu - "Water People", lit. "River People").
To the northwest lived thePalus (Pelúucpuu/Peluutspu - "People of Pa-luš-sa/Palus [village]") and to the west theCayuse (Lik-si-yu) (Weyíiletpuu – "Ryegrass People"), west bound there were found theUmatilla (Imatalamłáma) (Hiyówatalampoo/Hiyuwatalampo),Walla Walla,Wasco (Wecq’úupuu) and Sk'in (Tike’éspel’uu) and northwest of the latter variousYakama bands (Lexéyuu).
The feared Blackfoot Confederacy and the variousTeton Sioux (Lakota) (Iseq'uulkt - "Cut Throats") and their later allies, theCheyenne (Suhtai/Sutaio Tsitsistas) (T'septitimeni'n - "[People with] Painted arrows"), were the main enemies of the Plateau peoples when entering the Northwestern Plains to hunt buffalo.
Historic regional bands, bands, local groups, and villages
Territories alongSnake River inHells Canyon up to about 80 miles south of today'sLewiston, Idaho (Simiinekem – "confluence of two rivers" or "river fork", as the Clearwater flows into the Snake River here), inWallowa Mountains and in theSeven Devils Mountains in Oregon and Idaho. Their fishing and hunting grounds were also used by thePelloatpallah Band (comprising the "Palus (or Palus proper) Band" and "Wawawai Band" of theUpper Palus Regional Band), who formed bilingual Palus-Nez-Percé bands due to many mixed marriages.
several village based bands are counted among them:
theNuksiwepu Band
thePalótpu Band (their village Palót was on the north bank of the Snake River – about 2 to 3 miles above Sáhatp)
thePinewewixpu (Pinăwăwipu) Band (their village Pinăwăwi was located at Penawawa Creek)
theSahatpu (Sáhatpu) Band (their village Sáhatp was located on the north bank of the Snake River, above Wawáwih)
theSiminekempu (Shimínĕkĕmpu) Band (their village Shimínĕkĕm – "confluence", was located in the area of present-day Lewiston)
theTokalatoinu (Tukálatuinu) Band (along theTucannon River (Took-kahl-la-toin), a tributary of the Snake River)
theWawawipu Band (their village Wawáwih was located at Wawawai Creek, a tributary of the Snake River)
Alpowna (Alpowai) Band orAlpowe'ma (Alpoweyma/Alpowamino) Band ("People alongAlpaha (Alpowa) Creek" or "People of ’Al’pawawaii, i.e.Clarkston")
Territories along the South and Middle Fork of the Clearwater River downstream to the city of Lewiston (and south of it) in eastern Washington and the Idaho Panhandle. They also spent much time east of the Bitterroot Mountains and camped along the Yellowstone River, their main meeting place and one of the most important fishing grounds was the area ofKooskia, Idaho (Leewikees). Their fishing and hunting grounds were also used by the "Wawawai Band" of the Upper Palus Regional Band, who lived directly to the west and formed a bilingual Palus-Nez-Percé Band due to many intermarriages. They were thethird largest Nez Percé regional group and their tribal area was one of the four centres for the large regional groups of the Nez Percé.
several village based bands are counted among them:
theAlpowna (Alpowai) Band orAlpowe'ma (Alpoweyma/Alpowamino) Band (largest and most important band, along the Alpaha (Alpowa) Creek, a small tributary of the Clearwater), west of Clarkston, Washington ('Al'pawawaii = People of a "place of a plant called Ahl-pa-ha")
theTsokolaikiinma Band (between Lewiston and Alpowa Creek)
theHasotino (Hăsotōinu) Band (their settlement Hasutin / Hăsotōin was an important fishing ground at Asotin Creek (Héesutine – "eel river") on the Snake River in Nez Perce County, Idaho, directly opposite the present town ofAsotin, Washington)
theHeswéiwewipu/Hăsweiwăwihpu local group (their village Hăsweiwăwih was also located opposite Asotin, along a small creek whose upper reaches were called Heswé/Hăsiwĕ)
theAnatōinnu local group (their village Ánatōin was located at the confluence of Mill Creek and the Snake River)
theSapachesap Band
theWitkispu Band (about 3 miles below Alpowa Creek, along the eastern bank of the Snake River)
theSálwepu Band (at the Middle Fork of the Clearwater River, about 5 miles above present-day Kooskia, Idaho, Chief Looking Glass Group)
Assuti Band ("People along Assuti Creek" in Idaho, joined Chief Joseph in the war of 1877.)
Atskaaiwawipu Band orAsahkaiowaipu Band ("People at the confluence, People from the river mouth, i.e.Ahsahka")
Territories from their winter village Ahsahka/Asaqa ("river mouth" or "confluence") up to the Salmon Ridge along theNorth Fork Clearwater River up to its mouth into the Clearwater River, hunted sometimes near Peck, Idaho (Pipyuuninma) in the territory of thePainima Band. An important fishing ground was Bruce Eddy in Clearwater County, Idaho, which was traditionally owned by theAtskaaiwawipu (Asahkaiowaipu), but was shared by neighboring bands upon invitation: theTewepu Band, theIlasotino (Hasotino) Band, theNipihama (Nipĕhĕmă) Band, theAlpowna (Alpowai) Band and theMatalaimo ("People further upstream", a collective term for bands that had their center around Kamiah).
Hatweme (Hatwēme) Band orHatwai (Héetwey) Band ("People along Hatweh Creek", a tributary of the Clearwater River, about four to five miles east of Lewiston)
Kămiăhpu Band orKimmooenim Band ("People of Kămiăhp", "People of the Many Rope Litters Place, i.e.Kamiah")
Their main village Kămiăhp was located on the south side of the Clearwater River and the confluence of Lawyer Creek near today'sKamiah, Idaho ("many rope litters") in the Kamiah Valley. They used with other bands the important fishing grounds near Bruce Eddy in Clearwater County, Idaho, which was in the territory of theAtskaaiwawipu (Asahkaiowaipu) Band. Other Nez Perce bands often grouped them under the collective nameUyame orUyămă; the closely related and neighboringAtskaaiwawipu (Asahkaiowaipu) Band referred to all bands around Kamiah asMatalaimo ("People further upstream"). Their tribal area was one of the four centers for the major regional groups of the Nez Percé.
several village based bands are counted among them:
theKămiăhpu (Kimmooenim) Band (was the biggest and most important band of the Kamiah Valley area)
theTewepu Band ("People of Téewe, i.e.Orofino, Idaho" at the confluence of Orofino Creek and Clearwater River)
theTuke'liklikespu (Tukē'lĭklĭkespu) Band (near Big Eddy on the north bank of the Clearwater River, some miles upstream from Orofino)
thePipu'inimu Band (at Big Canyon Creek in Camas Prairie, which flows into the Clearwater River north of today's Peck; they were therefore direct neighbours of the southern Painima Band),
thePainima Band (near present-dayPeck, Idaho (Pipyuuninma) in Nez Perce County, on the Clearwater River in Idaho)
Kannah Band orKam'nakka Band ("People of Kannah (along Clearwater River)" in Idaho)
Lamtáma (Lamátta) Band orLamatama Band ("People of a region with little snow, i.e. Lamtáma (Lamátta) region")
Territories were between theAlpowai Band in the north and downstream in the northwest thePikunan (Pikunin) Band and extended in the Idaho Panhandle north along theUpper Salmon River (Naco'x kuus – "Salmon River") and one of its tributaries, the White Bird Creek, and to the Snake River in the southwest, and also included the White Bird Canyon (deeper than the Grand Canyon) in the southwest of theClearwater Mountains and southeast of theCamas prairie. Their tribal area and band name is derived fromLamtáma (Lamátta) ("area with little snow") and refers to its excellent climatic conditions, which were particularly suitable for horse breeding. They were thesecond largest Nez Percé regional group; also calledSalmon River Band.
theEsnime (Iyăsnimă) Band (along Slate Creek ('Iyeesnime) and Upper Salmon River, therefore often simply calledSlate Creek Band orUpper Salmon River Indians)
theNipihama (Nipĕhĕmă) Band (from Lower Salmon River to White Bird Creek)
theTamanmu Band (their settlement Tamanma was located at the mouth of the Salmon River in Idaho)
Lapwai Band orLapwēme Band ("People of the Butterfly Place, i.e.Lapwai")
Territories along Sweetwater Creek and Lapwai Creek up to its confluence with the Clearwater River near today'sSpalding, Idaho. One of their traditional settlements (as well as an important meeting place for neighbouring bands) was on the site of today'sLapwai, Idaho (Thlap-Thlap, also:Léepwey – "Place of the Butterflies"), the tribal and administrative centre of the Nez Percé Tribe of Idaho. Their tribal area was one of the four centers for the major regional groups of the Nez Percé.
Mákapu Band ("People from Máka/Maaqa along Cottonwood Creek (formerly: Maka Creek"), a tributary of the Clearwater River, Idaho.)
Pikunan (Pikunin) Band orPikhininmu Band ("Snake River People")
Territories encompassed the vast mountain wilderness between the Snake River in the south and the Lower Salmon River in the north until it met the Snake River, were direct neighbours of theWallowa (Willewah) Band on the opposite bank of the Snake River in the west and theLamtáma (Lamátta) Band living further southeast of them. They could be classified as buffalo hunters, but they were also true mountain dwellers, also called theSnake River tribe.
Saiksaikinpu Band (on the upper portion of the Southern Fork Clearwater; their immediate neighbors downstream was theTukpame Band)
Saxsano Band (about 4 miles above Asotin, Washington, on the east side of Snake River.)
Taksehepu Band ("People ofTukeespe/Tu-kehs-pa APS, i.e.Ghost town Agatha")
Tukpame Band (on the lower portion of the Southern Fork Clearwater; their immediate neighbors upstream was theSaiksaikinpu Band.)
Wallowa (Willewah) Band orWalwáma (Walwáama) Band ("People along the Wallowa River" or "People along the Grand Ronde River")[35][36][37]
Territories in northeastern Oregon and northwestern Idaho with tribal centre in the river valleys of theImnaha River, theMinam River and theWallowa River (Wal'awa – "the winding river"). Their territory extended into theBlue Mountains (already claimed by the Cayuse) in the west, to theWallowa Mountains in the southwest, to both sides of theGrande Ronde River (Waliwa orWillewah) and its confluence with the Snake River in the north, and almost to the Snake River in the east. Their area was widely known as an excellent grazing ground for the large herds of horses and was therefore often used by the neighbouring and relatedWeyiiletpuu (Wailetpu) Band ("Ryegrass People, i.e. theCayuse people). They were often grouped under the collective nameKămúinnu orQéemuynu ("People of theIndian Hemp"). They were thelargest Nez Percé group and their tribal area was one of the four centers for the major regional groups of the Nez Percé. Today most are part of theConfederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation.
several village based bands are counted among them:
theWallowa (Willewah) Band (the largest band with several local groups, in the Wallowa River Valley andZumwalt Prairie)
theImnáma (Imnámma) Band (lived with several local groups isolated in the Imnaha River Valley)
theWeliwe (Wewi'me) Band (their settlement Williwewix was located at the mouth of the Grande Ronde River)
theInantoinu Band (inJoseph Canyon – known assaqánma ("long, wild canyon") oran-an-a-soc-um ("long, rough canyon") – and along Lower Joseph Creek to its mouth into the Grande Ronde River)
theToiknimapu Band (above Joseph Creek and along the north bank of the Grande Ronde River)
theIsäwisnemepu (Isawisnemepu) Band (near the present Zindel, at the Grande Ronde River in Oregon)
theSakánma Band (several local groups along the Snake River between the mouth of the Salmon River in the south and the Grande Ronde River in the north, the name of their main village Sakán and the band name Sakánma refers to an area where the cliffs rise close to the water – this could be Joseph Canyon (Saqánma))
Yakama Band orYăkámă Band ("People of the Yăká River, i.e.Potlatch River (above its mouth into the Clearwater River)", not to confused with theYakama peoples)[38]
Territories along the Potlatch River (which was called Yăká above its mouth into the Clearwater River) in Idaho.
several village based bands are counted among them:
theYakto'inu (Yaktōinu) Band (their village Yaktōin was located at the mouth of the Potlatch River into the Clearwater River)
theYatóinu Band (lived along Pine Creek, a small right tributary of the Potlatch River)
theIwatoinu (Iwatōinu) Band (their village Iwatōin was located on the north bank of the Potlatch River near today's Kendrick in Latah County)
theTunèhepu (Tunĕhĕpu) Band (their village Tunĕhĕ was located at the mouth of Middle Potlatch Creek into the Potlatch River, nearJuliaetta, Idaho (Yeqe))
Because of large amount of inter-marriage between Nez Perce bands and neighboring tribes or bands to forge alliances and peace (often living in mixed bilingual villages together), the following bands were also counted to the Nez Perce (which today are viewed as being linguistically and culturally closely related, but separate ethnic groups):
These were thePalus (or Palus proper) Band andWawawai Band of the Upper Palus Band, which constituted together with the Middle Palus Band und Lower Palus Band – one of the three main groups of thePalus people, which lived along the Columbia, Snake and Palouse Rivers to the northwest of the Nez Perce. Today the majority is enrolled in theConfederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation and some are part of theConfederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation.
Weyiiletpuu (Wailetpu) Bandor Yeletpo Band
These were theCayuse people which lived to the west of the Nez Perce at the headwaters of the Walla Walla, Umatilla and Grande Ronde River and from the Blue Mountains westwards up to the Deschutes River, they oft shared village sites with the Nez Perce and Palus and were feared by neighboring tribes, as early as 1805, most Cayuse had given up their mother tongue and had switched toWeyíiletpuu, a variety of the Lower Nez Perce/Lower Nimiipuutímt dialect of theNez Perce language. They called themselves by their Nez-Percé name asWeyiiletpuu ("Ryegrass People"); today most Cayuse are enrolled into theConfederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation, some asConfederated Tribes of Warm Springs orNez Perce Tribe of Idaho.
The semi-sedentary Nez Percés wereHunter-gatherers, living in a society in which most or all food is obtained byforaging (collecting wild plants and roots and pursuing wild animals). They depended on hunting, fishing, and the gathering of wild roots and berries.
Prior to contact with Europeans, the Nez Perce's traditional hunting and fishing areas spanned from theCascade Range in the west to theBitterroot Mountains in the east.[41]
Historically, in late May and early June, Nez Perce villagers crowded to communal fishing sites to trap eels, steelhead, and chinook salmon, or haul in fish with large dip nets. Fishing took place throughout the summer and fall, first on the lower streams and then on the higher tributaries, and catches also included salmon, sturgeon, whitefish, suckers, and varieties of trout. Most of the supplies for winter use came from a second run in the fall, when large numbers of Sockeye salmon, silver, and dog salmon appeared in the rivers.
Fishing is traditionally an important ceremonial and commercial activity for the Nez Perce tribe. Today Nez Perce fishers participate in tribal fisheries in the mainstream Columbia River betweenBonneville andMcNary dams. The Nez Perce also fish for spring and summer Chinook salmon and Rainbow trout/steelhead in theSnake River and its tributaries. The Nez Perce tribe runs the Nez Perce Tribal Hatchery on the Clearwater River, as well as several satellite hatchery programs.
Nez Perce encampment, Lapwai, Idaho, ca. 1899
The first fishing of the season was accompanied by prescribed rituals and a ceremonial feast known as "kooyit". Thanksgiving was offered to the Creator and to the fish for having returned and given themselves to the people as food. In this way, it was hoped that the fish would return the next year.
Like salmon, plants contributed to traditional Nez Perce culture in both material and spiritual dimensions.[42]
Aside from fish and game, Plant foods provided over half of the dietary calories, with winter survival depending largely on dried roots, especiallyKouse, or "qáamsit" (when fresh) and "qáaws" (when peeled and dried) (Lomatium especiallyLomatium cous), andCamas, or "qém'es" (Nez Perce: "sweet") (Camassia quamash), the first being roasted in pits, while the other was ground in mortars and molded into cakes for future use, both plants had been traditionally an important food and trade item.[42] Women were primarily responsible for the gathering and preparing of these root crops. Camas bulbs were gathered in the region between theSalmon andClearwater river drainages.[43] Techniques for preparing and storing winter foods enabled people to survive times of colder winters with little or no fresh foods.[42]
Many fishes and plants important to Nez Perce culture are today state symbols: the black huckleberry or "cemi'tk" is theofficial state fruit and the Indian arrowwood or "sise'qiy", the Douglas fir or "pa'ps" is thestate tree of Oregon and the ponderosa pine or "la'qa" of Montana, the Chinook salmon is thestate fish of Oregon, the cutthroat trout or "wawa'lam" of Idaho, Montana and Wyoming, and the West Coast steelhead or "heyey" of Washington.
The Nez Perce believed in spirits calledweyekins (Wie-a-kins) which would, they thought, offer a link to the invisible world of spiritual power".[44] The weyekin would protect one from harm and become a personal guardian spirit. To receive a weyekin, a seeker would go to the mountains alone on a vision quest. This included fasting and meditation over several days. While on the quest, the individual may receive a vision of a spirit, which would take the form of a mammal or bird. This vision could appear physically or in a dream or trance. The weyekin was to bestow the animal's powers on its bearer—for example; a deer might give its bearer swiftness. A person's weyekin was very personal. It was rarely shared with anyone and was contemplated in private. The weyekin stayed with the person until death.
Helen Hunt Jackson, author of "A Century of Dishonor", written in 1881 refers to the Nez Perce as "the richest, noblest, and most gentle" of Indian peoples as well as the most industrious.[45]
The museum at theNez Perce National Historical Park, headquartered inSpalding, Idaho, and managed by theNational Park Service, includes a research center, archives, and library. Historical records are available for on-site study and interpretation of Nez Perce history and culture.[46] The park includes 38 sites associated with the Nez Perce in the states of Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington, many of which are managed by local and state agencies.[46]
In 1805William Clark was the first known Euro-American to meet any of the tribe, excluding the aforementioned French Canadian traders. While he,Meriwether Lewis and their men were crossing theBitterroot Mountains, they ran low of food, and Clark took six hunters and hurried ahead to hunt. On September 20, 1805, near the western end of theLolo Trail, he found a small camp at the edge of the camas-digging ground, which is now calledWeippe Prairie. The explorers were favorably impressed by the Nez Perce whom they met. Preparing to make the remainder of their journey to the Pacific by boats on rivers, they entrusted the keeping of their horses until they returned to "2 brothers and one son of one of the Chiefs." One of these Indians wasWalammottinin (meaning "Hair Bunched and tied," but more commonly known as Twisted Hair). He was the father ofChief Lawyer, who by 1877 was a prominent member of the "Treaty" faction of the tribe. The Nez Perce were generally faithful to the trust; the party recovered their horses without serious difficulty when they returned.[47]
Recollecting the Nez Perce encounter with the Lewis and Clark party, in 1889 anthropologist Alice Fletcher wrote that "the Lewis and Clark explorers were the first white men that many of the people had ever seen and the women thought them beautiful." She wrote that the Nez Perce "were kind to the tired and hungry party. They furnished fresh horses and dried meat and fish with wild potatoes and other roots which were good to eat, and the refreshed white men went further on, westward, leaving their bony, wornout horses for the Indians to take care of and have fat and strong when Lewis and Clark should come back on their way home." On their return trip they arrived at the Nez Perce encampment the following spring, again hungry and exhausted. The tribe constructed a large tent for them and again fed them. Desiring fresh red meat, the party offered an exchange for a Nez Perce horse. Quoting from the Lewis and Clark diary, Fletcher writes, "The hospitality of the Chiefs was offended at the idea of an exchange. He observed that his people had an abundance of young horses and that if we were disposed to use that food, we might have as many as we wanted." The party stayed with the Nez Perce for a month before moving on.[48]
Under pressure from theEuropean Americans, in the late 19th century the Nez Perce split into two groups: one side accepted the coerced relocation to a reservation and the other refused to give up their fertile land in Washington and Oregon. Those willing to go to a reservation made a treaty in 1877. The flight of the non-treaty Nez Perce began on June 15, 1877, withChief Joseph,Looking Glass,White Bird,Ollokot, Lean Elk (Poker Joe) andToohoolhoolzote leading 750 men, women and children in an attempt to reach a peaceful sanctuary. They intended to seek shelter with their allies theCrow but, upon the Crow's refusal to offer help, the Nez Perce tried to reach the camp in Canada ofLakota ChiefSitting Bull. He had migrated there instead of surrendering after the Indian victory at theBattle of the Little Bighorn.
The Nez Perce were pursued by over 2,000 soldiers of theU.S. Army on an epic flight to freedom of more than 1,170 miles (1,880 km) across four states and multiple mountain ranges. The 250 Nez Perce warriors defeated or held off the pursuing troops in 18 battles, skirmishes, and engagements. More than 100 US soldiers and 100 Nez Perce (including women and children) were killed in these conflicts.[50]
A majority of the surviving Nez Perce were finally forced to surrender on October 5, 1877, after theBattle of the Bear Paw Mountains in Montana, 40 miles (64 km) from the Canada–US border.Chief Joseph surrendered to GeneralOliver O. Howard of theU.S. Cavalry.[51] During the surrender negotiations, Chief Joseph sent a message, usually described as a speech, to the US soldiers. It has become renowned as one of the greatest American speeches: "...Hear me, my chiefs, I am tired. My heart is sick and sad. From where the sun now stands, I will fight no more forever."[52]
Chief Joseph went to Washington, D.C., in January 1879 to meet with the President and Congress, after which his account was published in theNorth American Review.[53]
The route of the Nez Perce flight is preserved by theNez Perce National Historic Trail.[54] The annual Cypress Hills ride in June commemorates the Nez Perce people's attempt to escape to Canada.[55]
In 1994 the Nez Perce tribe began a breeding program, based on crossbreeding theAppaloosa and a Central Asian breed calledAkhal-Teke, to produce what they called theNez Perce Horse.[56] They wanted to restore part of their traditional horse culture, where they had conducted selective breeding of their horses, long considered a marker of wealth and status, and trained their members in a high quality of horsemanship. Social disruption due to reservation life and assimilationist pressures by Americans and the government resulted in the destruction of their horse culture in the 19th century. The 20th-century breeding program was financed by theUnited States Department of Health and Human Services, the Nez Perce tribe, and the nonprofit called theFirst Nations Development Institute. It has promoted businesses in Native American country that reflect values and traditions of the peoples. The Nez Perce Horse breed is noted for its speed.
Due to tribal loss of lands, the population on the reservation is predominantly white, nearly 90% in 1988.[59] The largest community is the city ofOrofino, near its northeast corner.Lapwai is the seat of tribal government, and it has the highest percentage of Nez Perce people as residents, at about 81.4 percent.
Similar to the opening of Native American lands inOklahoma by allowing acquisition of surplus by non-natives after households received plots, the U.S. government opened the Nez Percé reservation for general settlement on November 18, 1895. The proclamation had been signed less than two weeks earlier by PresidentGrover Cleveland.[60] Thousands rushed to grab land on the reservation, staking out their claims even on land owned by Nez Perce families.[61][62][63]
The Nez Perce Wallowa Homeland[64] atWallowa in northeast Oregon is in the historic territory of the large Wallowa Band. The Homeland has owned 320 acres (130 ha) and a visitor center since 2000, to "enrich relationships among the descendants of indigenous people and the contemporary inhabitants of the Wallowa Valley ... [and to] preserve and celebrate the customs and culture of the indigenous inhabitants." A Methodist church was established in Wallowa in 1877, and in 2021 the United Methodist Church returned a small parcel of land and the church building to the Nez Perce Tribe.[65]
The Tamkaliks Celebration is a powwow named after the Nez Perce word for where you can see the mountains. It began in 1991 to welcome the Nez Perce back home to the Wallowa Valley.[66]
Archie Phinney (1904–1949), scholar and administrator who studied underFranz Boas atColumbia University and producedNez Perce Texts, a published collection of Nez Perce myths and legends from the oral tradition[67]
Chief Joseph (hinmatóoyalahtq'it – "Thunder traveling to higher areas") (1840–1904), also known as Young Joseph, the best-known leader of the Nez Perce, who led his people in their struggle to retain their identity, with about 60 warriors, he commanded the greatest following of the non-treaty chiefs.
Chief Lawyer (Hallalhotsoot,Halalhot'suut) (c. 1796–1876), son of a Salish-speaking Flathead woman and Twisted Hair, the Nez Perce who welcomed and befriended the exhaustedLewis and Clark Expedition in the September 1805. His father's positive experiences with the whites greatly influenced him, leader of the treaty faction of the Nez Percé, and signed the 1855 Walla Walla Treaty and controversial 1863 treaty.[68] He was called the Lawyer by fur trappers because of his oratory and ability to speak several languages. He defended the actions of the 1863 Treaty which cost the Nez Perce nearly 90% of their lands after gold was discovered because he knew it was futile to resist the US government and its military power. He tried to negotiate the best outcome which still allowed the majority of Nez Perce to live in their usual village locations. He died, frustrated that the U.S. government failed to follow through on the promises made in both treaties, even making a trip to Washington, D.C. to express his frustration.[68] He is buried at the Nikesa Cemetery at the Presbyterian church inKamiah.[68]
Eagle from the Light,[69] (Tipiyelehne Ka Awpo) chief of the non-treaty Lam'tama band, that traveled east over theBitterroot Mountains along with Looking Glass' band to hunt buffalo, was present at the Walla Walla Council in 1855 and supported the non-treaty faction at the Lapwai Council, refused to sign the Treaty of 1855 and 1866, left his territory on Salmon River (two miles south of Corvallis) in 1875 with part of his band, and did settle down in Weiser County (Montana), joined with Shoshone Chief's Eagle's Eye. The leadership of the other Lam'tama that rested on the Salmon River was taken by old chief White Bird. Eagle From the Light didn't participate in the War of 1877 because he was too far away.
Ellis (c. 1810–1848) was the first united leader of the Nez Perce. He was the grandson of the leader Hohots Ilppilp (also known as Red Grizzly Bear), who met with Lewis and Clark.
Looking Glass (younger) or ’Eelelimyeteqenin’ (also:Allalimya Takanin – "Wrapped in the wind") (c. 1832–1877), leader of the non-treaty Alpowai band and war leader, who was killed during the tribe's final battle with the US Army; his following was third and did not exceed 40 men.
Old Chief Joseph (Tuekakas), (also: tiwíiteq'is) (c. 1785–1871), was leader of the Wallowa Band and one of the first Nez Percé converts to Christianity and vigorous advocate of the tribe's early peace with whites, father of Chief Joseph (also known as Young Joseph).
Ollokot, (’álok'at, also known as Ollikut) (1840s–1877), younger brother of Chief Joseph, war chief of the Wallowa band, was killed while fighting at the final battle on Snake Creek, near the Bear Paw Mountains on October 4, 1877.
Peo Peo Tholekt (piyopyóot’alikt – "Bird Alighting"), a Nez Perce warrior who fought with distinction in every battle of the Nez Perce War, wounded in theBattle of Camas Creek.
Poker Joe, warrior and subchief; chosen trail boss and guide of the Nez Percé people following the Battle of the Big Hole, killed in theBattle of Bear Paw; halfFrench Canadian and Nez Perce descent
Rainbow (Wahchumyus), war leader of a non-treaty band, killed in theBattle of the Big Hole
Red Owl (Koolkool Snehee), war leader of a non-treaty band
Timothy (Tamootsin, 1808–1891), leader of the treaty faction of the Alpowai (or Alpowa) band of the Nez Percé, was the first Christian convert among the Nez Percé, was married to Tamer, a sister ofOld Chief Joseph, who was baptized on the same day as Timothy.[71]
White Bird orPiyóopiyo x̣ayx̣áyx̣ (also:Peo-peo-hix-hiix orPeo peo Hih Hih; more correctlyPeopeo Kiskiok Hihih – "White Goose") (d.1892), also referred to asWhite Pelican was war leader andtooat (medicine man orprophet) of the non-treaty Lamátta or Lamtáama band, belonging toLahmatta ("area with little snow"), by which White Bird Canyon was known to the Nez Perce, his following was second in size to Joseph's, and did not exceed 50 men
Wrapped in the Wind (’elelímyeté'qenin’/ háatyata'qanin)
Yellow Bull orCúuɫim maqsmáqs (also:Chuslum Moxmox), war leader of a non-treaty band
Yellow Wolf orHiímiin maqs maqs / Himíin maqsmáqs (also:He–Mene Mox Mox orHemene Moxmox, wished to be calledHeinmot Hihhih orIn-mat-hia-hia – "White Lightning", c. 1855, died August 1935) was a Nez Perce warrior of the non-treaty Wallowa band who fought in the Nez Perce War of 1877, gunshot wound, left arm near wrist; under left eye in the Battle of the Clearwater
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^Colombi, Benedict (2012). "The Economics of Dam Building: Nez Perce Tribe and Global-Scale Development".American Indian Culture and Research Journal.36 (1):123–149.doi:10.17953/aicr.36.1.51041847xp3452q0 (inactive November 1, 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2025 (link)
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^Paiute-speakers (i.e. Bannocks) called themselvesPan a'kwati/Panákwate – ″on the water side or on the west side″ and their Shoshone kin within the mixed Bannock-Shoshone bands asWihínakwate – ″on the knife side or on the iron side″ (the equivalent Shoshone words areWihiN'naite andBannaite)
^The North American Indian. Volume 8 – The Nez Perces. Wallawalla. Umatilla. Cayuse. The Chinookan tries. Classic Books Company.ISBN978-0-7426-9808-6, page 158 – 160 (Source for regional bands, bands and villages)
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain:"Plants – Nez Perce National Historical Park". U.S. National Park Service.
