Language map of Nepal (including Newar): red = Newar language is the majority spoken language red with yellow stripes = Newar language is spoken along withPahari language
Newar (English:/nəˈwɑːr/;𑐣𑐾𑐥𑐵𑐮 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵,nepāla bhāṣā)[5] is aSino-Tibetan language spoken by theNewar people, the indigenous inhabitants ofNepal Mandala, which consists of theKathmandu Valley and surrounding regions inNepal. The language is known officially in Nepal asNepal Bhasa, a name that has been historically used for the language.[6][7] The term "Newari" is also used to refer to the language, although the Indic-i suffix is considered inappropriate by some Newar speakers.[a]
The language served as the official language of Nepal during theMalla dynasty since the 14th century till the end of dynasty in 1769 during which the language was referred as "Nepal Bhasa", a term which literally means "Nepalese Language".[10][11] However, the language is not the same asNepali, anIndo-Aryan language and the current official language ofNepal, which only got the name Nepali in the 1930s.[12]Literature in Newar is one of the oldest in Nepal, dating back to at least 600 years ago.[13]
From the start of theRana dynasty in the 1840s untildemocratisation, Newar suffered from official suppression.[14][15] From 1952 to 1991, the percentage of Newar speakers in the Kathmandu Valley dropped from 75% to 44%[16] and today Newar culture and language are under threat.[17] The language has been listed as "Definitely endangered" byUNESCO.[18]
On 6 May 2024, Newar, along withTamang andNepali was declared as the official language ofBagmati Province.[19] Similarly, Newar is given official status in several city governments of Nepal includingKathmandu.[20]
A line from aninscription dated 1706 using the term "Nepāla Bhāṣā" inPracalit script to refer to the language.
The official and historical name of the language,Nepal Bhasa, which literally meansNepal Language, originates fromNepal.[21][22] Historically,Nepal was only used to refer to theKathmandu Valley and its surroundings, where the language was native to.[b][31][32][33][34] A larger region surrounding thevalley is known asNepal Mandala. Therefore, the language spoken inNepal Mandala became known as Nepal Bhasa.[22]
The term "Newari" as a name for the language was coined byBrian Hodgson in 1847 and since then used by most western scholars.[9] The term "Newari" is considered by manyNewars to be inappropriate as it is theSanskritisation of "Newar".[a] "Newar" is generally believed to be related to the word "Nepal", possibly derived by the replacement of the 'la' sound with a 'ra' sound, a common practice in historical documents from Nepal.[38] Historically, the term "Newar" itself was rarely used, only finding use in the travelogue of some of theCapuchinmissionaries who visited Nepal during theMalla dynasty.[39] Only two sources from theMalla dynasty use the term "Newar" to refer to the language or its script; themultilingual stone inscription ofPratap Malla uses "nevāra ākhara" ("newar alphabet") to refer to thePracalit script and another stone inscription set up byPratap Malla in 1652 uses the termnevārabhāṣā ("newar language") to refer to the language.[39]
In the 1920s, the language known as Khas Kura,[40] Gorkhali or Parbatiya[41] was renamed toNepali.[42][43][44] Conversely, the term Gorkhali in the formernational anthem entitled "Shreeman Gambhir" was changed to Nepali in 1951.[45]Gorkha Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Gorkha Language Publishing Committee), a government institution established in 1913 (B.S. 1970) for advancement of Gorkha Bhasa, renamed itself asNepali Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Nepali Language Publishing Committee) in 1933 (B.S. 1990), which is currently known asSajha Prakashan.[46]
On 7 September 1995, the cabinet of ministers decided to use "Nepala Bhasa" instead of "Newari".[47][48][49] On 13 November 1998, the Minister of Information and Communication issued another directive to use the name Nepal Bhasa instead of Newari.[50][51] However, the Central Bureau of Statistics has not been doing so.[52]
A colloquial term isNewa Bhaay (Devanāgarī: नेवा: भाय्,IAST: Nevāḥ Bhāy) is also used.
With an increase in emigration, various bodies and societies of Newar-speaking people have emerged in countries such as the US, the UK, Australia, and Japan.
Newar wasNepal Mandala's (then only known as Nepal) administrative language from the 14th to the late 18th century. The continued official use of Newari into theShah dynasty is shown by the 1775 treaty withTibet, which was written in the language, but it was gradually replaced in official use by Gorkhali.[56] From the early 20th century untildemocratization, Newar suffered from official suppression.[14] During this period, the use of the language for business and literary purposes was declared illegal, and Newar authors were fined or imprisoned.[57]
TheLanguage Commission of Nepal recommendedBagmati Province to provide Nepal Bhasa (Newar) the status of official language, alongsideTamang. The commission also recommends Nepal Bhasa (Newar) for official status in specific areas and purposes inProvince No. 1 andGandaki Province.[58] At local levels, Nepal Bhasa (Newar) has official status inKathmandu Metropolitan City,[59] Lalitpur Metropolitan City[60] and Kirtipur Municipality[61]Chandragiri Municipality, Shankharapur Municipality, Tarkeshwor Municipality of Kathmandu district;Banepa Municipality,Dhulikhel Municipality of Kavre district; Godavari Municipality of Lalitpur district; andBhaktapur Municipality, Madhyapur Thimi Municipality of Bhaktapur district have recognized Nepal Bhasa in some ways. Similarly, Bhimeshor Municipality has recognized and made policy-level decisions for Dolakha Nepal Bhasa.[60]
Newar is an additional official language inSikkim for the purpose of preservation of culture and tradition in the state.[62] The official weekly publicationSikkim Herald has a Newar Edition.[63] The Information & Public Relations Department also broadcasts news bulletin in Newar.[64]
Nepal Bhasa is included as elective mother tongue subject in schools by Curriculum Development Committee.[65]Tribhuvan University offers Bachelors, Masters, Mphil and PhD degree in Nepal Bhasa.[66] Expatriates[who?] can study Nepal Bhasa at Bishwa Bhasa Campus in Kathmandu.[67] Kathmandu Metropolitan City and Kirtipur Municipality are teaching Nepal Bhasa as a local language.[68] Newar is taught in schools of Sikkim.[69]
The exact placement of Newar within the Tibeto-Burman language family has been a source of controversies and confusion. Robert Shafer classified Newar as part of his Bodic division of Sino-Tibetan.[70] George Van Driem classified Newar within theMahakiranti grouping but he later retracted his hypothesis in 2003. Moreover, he proposed a new grouping called "Maha-Newari" which possibly includesBaram–Thangmi.[71]
T. R. Kansakar attributes the difficulty about the placement of Newar to the inability of scholars to connect it with the migration patterns of the Tibeto-Burman speakers. Since Newar separated from rest of the family very early in history, it is difficult or at least arbitrary to reconstruct the basic stratum that contributed to present day Newar speech. He underscored the point that the language evolved from mixed racial/linguistic influences that do not lend easily to a neat classification.[72]
A classification (based on Glover's[73]) indicating a percentage of shared vocabulary within the labeled branch and an approximate time of split:[citation needed]
ɫ"%" indicates lexical similarity/common vocabulary between Newar and the other languages in the branch. The date indicates an approximate time when the language diverged. ɞVan Driem labelled this branch as "Parakiranti" and included it together with Kiranti branch to form Maha Kiranti group. However, he would later drop this hypothesis. ʌAll languages within this branch have extensive Indo-Aryan vocabulary. It is hypothesised that either ancient IndoAryan admixture happened before Newar-Thangmi-Baram split or that Thangmi-Baram borrowed through Newari.[71]
According to the Linguist Glover, Newar andChepang language must have diverged around 2200 BC. It is estimated that Newar shares 28% of its vocabulary with Chepang. At the same time, a very large and significant proportion of Newari vocabulary is Indo-European in origin, by one estimate more than 50%, indicating an influence of at least 1,600 years from Indo-European languages, first from Sanskrit, Maithili, Persian, and Urdu and today from Hindi, Nepali and English.[74]
TheSanskrit language stone inscriptions of theLicchavi period (approximately 400–750) contains frequent use ofSino-Tibetan words especially for proper nouns.[75] Almost 80 percent of the names of places, taxes and merchandise used in the inscriptions areTibeto-Burman in origin.[75][76][77] It suggests that Newar existed as a vernacular language since at least theLichhavi Dynasty.[75] According to theGopal Raj Vamshavali, a 14th century Newar language history book, before theLicchavis of Vaishali conqueredNepal, it was ruled by theKirata and the language they spoke, which is referred by historians such as Shrestha as Kiranti, is believed to be the old form of the Newar language.[76] For instance, in an inscription from 594 located in present dayBhaktapur, the area is referred askhopṛiṅa which closely resmbles theclassical and modern Newar name for thecity,khopa.[78]
A page from aAstrology book from 1480 written in Newar.A expenditure book written in the Newar Language from 1681.
It is during this period that the earliest dated document written entirely inNewar was written, apalm-leaf manuscript preserved in Uku Bāhā, aBuddhist monastery inLalitpur, which dates from 1114.[79] Following is a line from the document which mostly deals with business transaction.[79]
The community should keep an eye on what remains and
replace for what is lost, with a remaining object or gift rightlysold out, give some clothes.
The first inscription written entirely in Newar set up by the royal family also dates from this period; a stone inscription fromBajrayogini Temple of Rudra Malla from 1127 (NS 293).[7]
The Newar language of the Medieval era (879 to 1769 CE) is referred asClassical Newar.[80] It is further classified into Early Classical Newar, used from 879 to 1482, when theperiod of three kingdom started and Late Classical Newar, from 1482 to 1769, when theMalla dynasty ended.
In the 14th century, Newar was given the status of national language byJayasthiti Malla.[32] Since then, most of royal decrees, official proclamations and public notices set up by the monarchs appeared in Newar.[42]Jayasthiti Malla himself commissioned many works in Newar like theGopal Raj Vamshavali, a manuscript about the history of Nepal dating to 1389.[81] From the 14th century onwards, an overwhelming number ofstone inscriptions in the Kathmandu Valley, where they are a ubiquitous element at heritage sites, are in Newar.[82][83]
The period from 1428 to 1769 is considered a Golden Age forNewar Literature. Many monarchs of the Malla dynasty themselves started composing hymns and dramas in Newar. Noted royal writers includeMahindra Malla,Siddhi Narsingh Malla, andRanajit Malla. Still, there are numerous works of literature from this period with anonymous authors. Some non royal authors include Keshav Udās, Brisabhānanda and Biladātāsingha.[84]
Some notable women who wrote literature in Newar during this period include, Jagatakeshari fromBanepa,Briddhi Lakshmi (queen consort ofBhaktapur), Riddhi Lakshmi (mother ofBhupalendra Malla), Jaya Lakshmi (queen consort ofYoga Narendra Malla).[85] Among them, Riddhi Lakshmi is considered to be the first woman to publish literature in Nepal as her poems are the earliest dated literature in Nepal authored by a woman.[86]
An example of the language used during this period is provided by the following lines from a poem written byBriddhi Lakshmi.[87]
Newar began to be sidelined after theGorkha conquest of Nepal and the ouster of theMalla dynasty by theShah dynasty in the late 18th century. Since then, its history has been one of constant suppression and struggle against official disapproval.[89]
Following the advent of the Shahs, the Gorkhali language became the court language,[90] and Newar was replaced as the language of administration.[91] However, Newar continued to remain in official use for a time as shown by the 1775 treaty with Tibet which was written in it.[42] A few of the new rulers cultivated the language. KingsPrithvi Narayan Shah,Rana Bahadur andRajendra Bikram Shah composed poetry and wrote plays in it.
Newar suffered heavily under the repressive policy of theRana dynasty (1846–1951 AD) when the regime attempted to wipe it out.[92][93] In 1906, legal documents written in Newar were declared unenforceable, and any evidence in the language was declared null and void.[94] The rulers forbade literature in Newar, and writers were sent to jail.[95] In 1944, Buddhist monks who wrote in the language were expelled from the country.[96][97]
Moreover, hostility towards the language from neighbours grew following massive migration into the Kathmandu Valley leading to the indigenous Newars becoming a minority.[98] During the period 1952 to 1991, the percentage of the valley population speaking Newar dropped from 74.95% to 43.93%.[99] TheNepal Bhasa movement arose as an effort to save the language.
Newars have been fighting to save their language in the face of opposition from the government and hostile neighbours from the time of the repressiveRana regime till today.[100] The movement arose against the suppression of the language that began with the rise of the Shah dynasty in 1768 AD, and intensified during the Rana regime (1846–1951) andPanchayat system (1960–1990).[101]
At various times, the government has forbidden literature in Newar, banned the official use and removed it from the media and the educational system.[102] Opponents have even petitioned the Supreme Court to have its use barred.
Activism has taken the form of publication of books and periodicals to public meets and protest rallies. Writers and language workers have been jailed or expelled from the country, and they have continued the movement abroad. The struggle forlinguistic rights has sometimes combined with the movement for religious and political freedom in Nepal.
Cover ofBuddha Dharma wa Nepal Bhasa ("Buddhism and Nepalese") magazine dated 1929.'Aesop's Fables' in Newar by Jagat Sundar Malla, first published in 1915.
In 1909, Bajracharya published the first printed book using movable type. Shastri wrote a grammar of the language entitledNepal Bhasa Vyakaran, the first one in modern times. It was published fromKolkata in 1928. His other works includeNepal Bhasa Reader, Books 1 and 2 (1933) and an alphabet bookNepali Varnamala (1933).[104]
Mahaju's translation of theRamayan and books on morals and ethics, Malla's endeavours to impart education in the native language and other literary activities marked the renaissance. Dharmacharya published the first magazine in NewarBuddha Dharma wa Nepal Bhasa ("Buddhism and Nepalese") fromKolkata in 1925. Also, the Renaissance marked the beginning of the movement to get official recognition for the name "Nepal Bhasa" in place of theKhas imposed term "Newari".
Some of the lines of Mahaju read as follows:
सज्जन मनुष्या संगतनं मूर्ख नापं भिना वै
sajjana manuṣyā saṃgatanaṃ mūrkha nāpaṃ bhinā vai
पलेला लपते ल वंसा म्वति थें ल सना वै
palēlā lapatē la vaṃsā mvati thēṃ la sanā vai
The verse states that even a moron can improve with the company of good people just like a drop of water appears like a pearl when it descends upon the leaves of a lotus plant.
The years 1941–1945 are known as the jail years for the large number of authors who were imprisoned for their literary or political activities. It was a productive period and resulted in an outpouring of literary works.
Chittadhar Hridaya,Siddhicharan Shrestha andPhatte Bahadur Singh were among the prominent writers of the period who were jailed for their writings. While in prison, Hridaya produced his greatest workSugata Saurabha,[105] an epic poem on the life ofGautama Buddha.[95] Shrestha wrote a collection of poems entitledSeeswan ("Wax Flower", published in 1948) among other works. Singh (1902–1983) was sentenced to life imprisonment for editing and publishing an anthology of poems by various poets entitledNepali Bihar.[106]
The efforts of Newar authors coincided with the revival ofTheravada Buddhism in Nepal, which the rulers disliked equally. In 1946, the monks who had been exiled by the Ranas in 1944 for teachingBuddhism and writing in Newar were allowed to return following international pressure. Restrictions on publication were relaxed, and books could be published after being censored. The monks wrote wide-ranging books on Buddhism and greatly enriched the corpus of religious literature.[107][108]
Nepal Bhasa Patrika daily newspaper dated 5 November 1960.
Following the overthrow of theRana dynasty and the advent of democracy in 1951, restrictions on publication in Newar were removed. Books, magazines and newspapers appeared. A daily newspaperNepal Bhasa Patrika began publication in 1955.[110] Textbooks were published and Newar was included in the curriculum. Nepal Rastriya Vidhyapitha recognised Newar as an alternative medium of instruction in the schools and colleges affiliated to it.
Literary societies like Nepal Bhasa Parisad were formed and Chwasa: Pasa returned from exile.[89] In 1958, Kathmandu Municipality passed a resolution that it would accept applications and publish major decisions in Newar in addition to the Nepali language.[111]
Democracy lasted for a brief period, and Newar and other languages of Nepal entered a second Dark Age with the dissolution of parliament and the imposition of thePanchayat system in 1960. Under its policy of "one nation, one language", only the Nepali language was promoted, and all the other languages of Nepal were suppressed as "ethnic" or "local" languages.[112]
In 1963, Kathmandu Municipality's decision to recognize Newar was revoked. In 1965, the language was also banned from being broadcast over Radio Nepal.[113] Those who protested against the ban were put in prison, including Buddhist monkSudarshan Mahasthavir.
The New Education System Plan brought out in 1971 eased out Nepal's other languages from the schools in a bid to diminish the country's multi-lingual traditions.[114] Students were discouraged from choosing their native language as an elective subject because it was lumped with technical subjects.[100] Nepal's various languages began to stagnate as the population could not use them for official, educational, employment or legal purposes.
Birat Nepal Bhasa Sahitya Sammelan Guthi (Grand Nepal Bhasa Literary Conference Trust), formed in 1962 in Bhaktapur, andNepal Bhasa Manka Khala, founded in 1979 in Kathmandu, are some of the prominent organizations that emerged during this period to struggle for language rights. The names of these organizations also annoyed the government which, on one occasion in 1979, changed the name of Brihat Nepal Bhasa Sahitya Sammelan Guthi in official media reports.[115]
After the1990 People's Movement that brought the Panchayat system to an end, the languages of Nepal enjoyed greater freedom.[117] The 1990 constitution recognized Nepal as a multiethnic and multilingual country. The Nepali language in the Devanagari script was declared the language of the nation and the official language. Meanwhile, all the languages spoken as native languages in Nepal were named national languages.[118]
In 1997,Kathmandu Metropolitan City declared that its policy to officially recognize Nepal Bhasa would be revived. The rest of the city governments in the Kathmandu Valley announced that they too would recognize it. However, critics petitioned the Supreme Court to have the policy annulled, and in 1999, the Supreme Court quashed the decision of the local bodies as being unconstitutional.[119]
A second People's Movement in 2006 ousted the Shah dynasty and Nepal became a republic which gave the people greater linguistic freedom. The 2007 Interim Constitution states that the use of one's native language in a local body or office shall not be barred.[120] However, this has not happened in practice. Organizations with names in Newar are not registered, and municipality officials refuse to accept applications written in the language.[121][122]
The restoration of democracy has been marked by the privatization of the media. Various people and organizations are working for the development of Newar. Newar has several newspapers, a primary level curriculum, several schools, several FM stations (selected time for Newar programs), regular TV programs and news (on Image TV Channel), Nepal Bhasa Music Award (a part of Image Award) and several websites (including aWikipedia in Nepal Bhasa[123]).
The number of schools teaching Newar has increased, and Newar is also being offered in schools outside the Kathmandu Valley.[124]
Inscriptions written in Newar occur acrossNepal Mandala and outside.
InGorkha, the Bhairav Temple at Pokharithok Bazaar contains an inscription datedNepal Sambat 704 (1584 AD), which is 185 years before the conquest of the Kathmandu Valley by theGorkha Kingdom. The Palanchowk Bhagawati Temple situated to the east of Kathmandu contains an inscription recording a land donation dated Nepal Sambat 861 (1741 AD).[125]
InBhojpur in east Nepal, an inscription at the Bidyadhari Ajima Temple dated Nepal Sambat 1011 (1891 AD) records the donation of a door andtympanum. The Bindhyabasini Temple inBandipur in west Nepal contains an inscription dated Nepal Sambat 950 (1830 AD) about the donation of a tympanum.[126]
Outside Nepal, Newar has been used inTibet. Official documents and inscriptions recording votive offerings made byNewar traders have been found inLhasa.[127] A copper plate dated Nepal Sambat 781 (1661 AD) recording the donation of a tympanum is installed at the shrine of Chhwaskamini Ajima (Tibetan:Palden Lhamo) in theJokhang Temple.[128]
ka kha yā mye ("a song ofka andkha"), a Newar language poem written byBriddhi Lakhmi, the queen consort ofBhaktapur.[129]A folio from a Book of Charms written in theBhujimol script from the 16th century.
Newar literature has a long history. It has one of the oldest literatures of theSino-Tibetan languages (together with Chinese, Tibetan, Tangut, Burmese, Yi, etc.)
Dramas are traditionally performed in open Dabu (stage). Most of the traditional dramas are tales related to deities and demons. Masked characters and music are central elements to such dramas. Most of them are narrated with the help of songs sung at intervals. Such dramas resemble dance in many cases. The theme of most dramas is the creation of a social well-being with morals illustrating the rise, turbulence, and fall of evil. There is fixed dates in theNepal Sambat (Nepal Era) calendar for the performance of specific drama. Most of the dramas are performed by specificGuthis.
Poetry writing constituted a splendid part of medieval Malla aristocracy. Many of the kings were well-renowned poets.Siddhidas Mahaju andChittadhar Hridaya are two great poets in the language.
Prosefiction in Newar is a relatively new field of literature compared to other fields. Most fiction was written in poetry form until the medieval era. Consequently, almost all prose fiction belongs to the modern Newar era. Collections of short stories in Newar are more popular than novels.
The art of verbalstorytelling is very old in Newar. There are a variety of mythical and social stories that have aided in establishing the norm of Kathmandu valley. Stories ranging from the origin of Kathmandu valley to the temples of the valley and the important monuments have been passed down verbally in Newar and very few exist in written form. However, with an increase in the literacy rate and an awareness among the people, folklore stories are being written down. Stories on other topics are also becoming popular.
Kansakar (2011) also gives the following classification of Newar dialects based on verb conjugation morphology.
Central
Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Kirtipur, Chitlang, Lele
Bhaktapur, Thimi
Eastern
Dolakha, Tauthali, Jethal, Listikot, Doti
Pahari (Badikhel)
Kapali (1141N.S.) gives the following classification of Nepal Bhasa dialects based on mutual intelligibility.[131][132]
Nepa Valley (Kathmandu Valley)
Eastern – includes the region of Bhaktapur, Sakwa and seven villages of Kavre.
Western – includes Kathmandu and Lalitpur
Dwalkha- includes Dolakha and Charikot of Dolakha district, Tauthali and Jethal of Sindupalchok district, and Duti of Kavre district.
Smaller dialects based on locality
Pyang gaan, a village in Lalitpur
Smaller dialects based on caste group
Gopali
Balami
Pahari
Other ways Nepal Bhasa is classified are as follows:-
Bhaktapur
Also known asKhwapey Bhāyख्वपय् भाय्, this dialect is more archaic than the standard. Variations exist in the use of this form of language in Bhaktapur, Banepa, Panauti, and Dhulikhel.
Chitlang
This dialect is used inChitlang, a place south of Kathmandu valley in Makawanpur district. This is one of the biggest Newar bastions at Chitlang. Balami caste predominates there.
This is the most preserved form of the language and resembles the old Newar.
Kathmandu-Lalitpur
Kathmandu dialect, also known asYenmi Bhāyयेँमि भाय्, is one of the dominant forms of the language and very close to the standard form of the language used in academia and media. It is also the most widely used dialect. It is spoken especially inKathmandu. Lalitpur dialect, also known asYeley Bhāyयलय् भाय्, is the most dominant form of language and is the standard form of language used in academics and media. It is also very widely used dialect. It is especially spoken inLalitpur. Due to the similarity between Kathmandu and Lalitpur dialects, it is often grouped as one. Almost 95% of Nepal Bhasa publications are in this dialect.[133]
Pahari
Pahari variation of Nepal Bhasa is spoken among the Pahari caste.[134]
Religions play aregister-like role in dialectical diversity though they are minor. It has been recorded from theMalla period. There are some vocabulary differences used among Newar Hindus and Buddhists but the dialects of Patan and Kathmandu are similar.Hinduism andBuddhism were present at that age and few words inHinduism andBuddhism of Newar differs. With the recent growth ofChristianity,Islam, other religions, andatheism in Nepal, the diversity in the speech registers regarding religious terminology has become more extended, such as omitting the worddyaḥ (द्यः, 'god') after the name of a deity by many people whereas it is retained inHinduism andBuddhism.
Detail of King Pratap Malla's inscription at Kathmandu Durbar Square of 1654 AD written in Nepal Lipi.Prayer wheels with the mantra "Om Mani Padme Hum" in Ranjana script at Swayambhu, Kathmandu.
Nepal Bhasa is currently written in Nepal Lipi, Ranjana Lipi and Devanagari script. The script originally used,Nepal Lipi or "Nepalese script", fell into disuse at the beginning of the 20th century when writing in the language and the script was banned, which resulted in emergence of Devanagari script.[139] However, in past decades attempts are being made for revival.[140]
Nepal Lipi, also known asNepal Akha,[141] emerged in the 10th century. Over the centuries, a number of variants of Nepali Lipi have appeared.
Nepal has been written in a variety ofabugida scripts:
Devanagari is the most widely used script at present, as it is common in Nepal and India.Ranjana script was the most widely used script to write Classical Nepalese in ancient times. It is experiencing a revival due to the recent rise of cultural awareness. ThePrachalit script is also in use. All used to write Nepal but Devanagari are descended from a script called theNepal script.[citation needed]
There are 3 series of vowel diacritics – the[kə]-like system, the[ɡə]-like system, and the[bə]-like system.
Use the[kə]-like system when applying to[kə],[d͡ʑə],[mʱə],[hʲə],[kʂə], and[d͡ʑɲə]
Use the[ɡə]-like system when applying to[ɡə],[kʰə],[ɲə],[ʈʰə],[ɳə],[tʰə],[dʱə], and[ɕə]
Use the[bə]-like system when applying to[bə],[ɡʱə],[ŋə],[t͡ɕə],[t͡ɕʰə],[d͡ʑʱə],[ʈə],[ɖə],[ɖʱə],[tə],[də],[nə],[nʱə],[pə],[pʰə],[bə],[bʱə],[mə],[jə],[rə],[hʳə],[lə],[lʱə],[wə],[wʱə],[ʂə],[sə],[hə],[trə]
Note that many of the consonants mentioned above (e.g.[bʱə],[ɖʱə],[ɡʱə], etc.) occur only in loan words and mantras.
Modern Newar is written generally with the Devanagari script, although formerly it was written in the Ranjana and other scripts. The letters of the Nagari alphabet are traditionally listed in the ordervowels (monophthongs anddiphthongs),anusvara andvisarga,stops (plosives andnasals) (starting in the back of the mouth and moving forward), and finally theliquids andfricatives, written inIAST as follows (see the tables below for details):
a ā i ī u ū ṛ ṝ ḷ ḹ; e ai o au
ṃ ḥ
k kh g gh ṅ; c ch j jh ñ; ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ; t th d dh n; p ph b bh m
y r l v; ś ṣ s h
Kathmandu Newar does not use ñ for the palatal nasal but instead writes this sound with the ligature⟨ny⟩ as for example in the wordnyā 'five'. Orthographic vowel length (i vs ī and u vs ū) represents a difference of vowel length while the vowels with no orthographic length (a and ā) is indicated with the visarga (e.g.khāḥ (IPA:/kʰaː/) 'is').
The vowels, calledmā ākha (माआखः), meaning "mother letters", used in Newar are:
Orthography
अ
अः
आ
आः
इ
ई
उ
ऊ
ऋ
ॠ
ऌ
ॡ
ए
ऐ
ओ
औ
अँ
अं
अय्
आय्
एय्
Roman
a
a:
aa
aa:
i
ii
u
uu
ri
rii
lri
lrii
e
ai
o
au
an
aN
ay
aay
ey
Even though ऋ, ॠ, ऌ, ॡ are present in Newar, they are rarely used. Instead, some experts suggest including अय् (ay) and आय् (aay) in the list of vowels.[142]
The consonants, calledbā ākha (बाआखः), meaning "father letters", used in Newar are:
क
ख
ग
घ
ङ
ङ्ह
/kə/
/kʰə/
/gə/
/gʱə/
/ŋə/
/ŋʱə/
च
छ
ज
झ
ञ
ञ्ह
/t͡ɕə/
/t͡ɕʰə/
/d͡ʑə/
/d͡ʑʱə/
/ɲə/
/ɲʱə/
ट
ठ
ड
ढ
ण
ण्ह
/ʈə/
/ʈʰə/
/ɖə/
/ɖʱə/
/ɳə/
/ɳʱə/
त
थ
द
ध
न
न्ह
/tə/
/tʰə/
/də/
/dʱə/
/nə/
/nʱə/
प
फ
ब
भ
म
म्ह
/pə/
/pʰə/
/bə/
/bʱə/
/mə/
/mʱə/
य
ह्य
र
ह्र
ल
ल्ह
व
व्ह
/jə/
/hjə/
/rə/
/hrə/
/lə/
/lʱə/
/wə/
/wʱə/
श
ष
स
ह
/ɕə/
/ʂə/
/sə/
/hə/
क्ष
त्र
ज्ञ
/kʂə/
/t̪rə/
/d͡ʑɲə/
ङ्ह, ञ्ह, ण्ह, न्ह, म्ह, ह्य, ह्र, ल्ह and व्ह are sometimes included in the list of consonants as they have a specific identity in Nepal.
The use of ङ and ञ was very common in the old form of language. However, in the new form, especially in writing, the use of these characters has diminished. The use of ण, त, थ, द, ध, न, श, ष, क्ष, त्र, ज्ञ is limited by the new grammar books to the loan words only.
Noun cases in Newar have six cases and are differentiated based on whether the term in question is animate or inanimate. The following charts provides case endings that can be affixed on the end of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in IAST transliteration for contemporary and old (or "classical") Newar.
Statement sentence- This language is aSOV (subject–object–verb) language. For instance, "My name is Bilat (Birat)" is "Jigu Na'aa Bilat Khaa'a " which word by word translation becomes, "My (Jigu) Name (Na'aa) Bilat is (Khaa'a)".
Interrogative sentence- Wh-question: In the case of Newar language, Wh-questions are rather "G-questions" with "when/which" being replaced by "Gublay/Gugu" respectively. There is an additional "Guli" which is used for "How much/How many". A S-word "Soo" is used for "who". "Chhoo/Schoo (with a silent 's')" is used for "What", and "Gathey" is used for "How".
Suffix- "Chaa" and "Ju" are two popular suffixes. "Chaa" is added to signify "junior" or "lesser". But when added to a name, it is used derogatorily. For example,kya'ah-chaa means nephew where "chaa" is being added tokya'ah(son). When added to name likeBirat for "Birat-chaa", it is being used derogatorily. The suffix "ju" is added to show respect. For example, "Baa-ju" means "father-in-law" where "ju" is added to "Baa(father)". Unlike "chaa", "ju" is not added to a first/last name directly. Instead, honorific terms like "Bhaaju" is added for males and "Mayju" for females. Example, "Birat bhaaju" for a male name (Birat) and "Suja Mayju" for a female name (Suja).
Prefix – "Tap'ah" is added to denote "remote" or "distant" relative ('distance' in relationship irrespective of spatial extent). A distant (younger) brother (kija) becomes "tap'ah-kija". "Tuh" is added to denote "higher". Father (baa)'s senior brother is referred to as "Tuh-baa".
Nepal Bhasa is the native language of Newars. Newars form a very diverse community with people from Sino-Tibetan, ASI and ANI origin.[148] Newars follow Hinduism and Buddhism, and are subdivided into 64 castes. The language, therefore, plays a central unifying role in the existence and perpetuation of the Newar community. The poet Siddhidas Mahaju concluded that the Newar community and its rich culture can only survive if the Newar language survives (भाषा म्वासा जाति म्वाइ).
The Newars enjoyed promotions in various areas since Kathmandu become the capital of the country as they rose in ranks throughout the government, royal courts and businesses.
Newar faced a decline during the Shah era when this language was replaced by Khas Kura (later renamed Nepali) as the national language and after the introduction of the "One nation, one language" policy of King Mahendra.
"The Newars themselves, some of whom find the term 'Newar' to be an oppressive reminder of their colonization by the Gorkhas in the 18th century."[8]
"Some people in the Newar community, including some prominent Newar linguists, consider the derivational suffix -i found in the term Newari to constitute an 'Indianization' of the language name. These people thus hold the opinion that the term Newari is non-respectful of Newar culture."[9]
^The termNepa Valley is still used among the nativeNewar population[23][24][25][26] and local governments[27] to refer to theKathmandu Valley while senior citizens still tend to refer the valley asNepal.[28] A government report from 1961 describes the valley being grouped asKathmandu District, which is different from today'sKathmandu District, marks the commencement of referring the valley as Kathmandu Valley.[29][30]
^Nepal Bhasa Sahityaya Itihas: History of Nepalbhasa Literature.Tuladhar, Prem Shanti (2000). Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Academy.ISBN99933-56-00-X. Page 37: "The early new rulers cultivated Newari language. Kings Prithvi Narayan Shah, Rana Bahadur and Rajendra Bikram Shah composed poetry and wrote many plays in Newari".
^Levy, Robert I. (1990)Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.ISBN81-208-1038-4. Page 15:"Following the advent of the Shahs, the Gorkhali language became the court language, and Newari was replaced as the language of administration".
^Malla, kamal. History of the Nepal. Kathmandu, Nepal: Rolwaling press. p. 155
^Khatiwada, Dambar."'राजधानी प्रदेश' र 'नेवा राज्य' : केही भ्रमको खण्डन".Online Khabar.Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved30 October 2021.उनले भनेका थिए– ‘तिब्बतको दक्षिणमा ‘नेपाल’ छ, त्यसका बासिन्दालाई ‘नेवार’ भनिन्छ ।’ यो सन्दर्भलाई पत्याउने हो भने त्यतिखेर ‘नेपाल’ काठमाडौं वरिपरि मात्र भएको देशको नाम थियो र अहिले ‘नेपाली’ भनिए जस्तो त्यो ‘नेपाल’ देशका बासिन्दालाई ‘नेवार’ भनिन्थ्यो । उनीहरूले बोल्ने भाषालाई ‘नेपाल भाषा’ भनिन्थ्यो । यसको गहिरो अर्थ छ– ‘नेवार’ कुनै जात, जाति वा नश्ल समुुदाय हैन, एक ऐतिहासिक राष्ट्र वा राष्ट्रियता हो ।
^Kapali, Rukshana (31 May 2018)."बाहिरी चक्रपथ र स्याटलाइट शहर: विकासको नाममा आत्महत्या !".Bizshala.Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved30 October 2021.हाल काठमाडौँ उपत्यका भनेर चिनिएको, पहिले नेपाल खाल्डो(नेपाः गाः) भनेर परिचित नेपाः उपत्यका, राजधानी यस्तो छ, यस्तो हुनुपर्छ, विकास यो हो, त्यो हो भन्ने आम जनमानसमा एउटा मानसिकता नै छ।
^Rai, Bhakta."रञ्जनाको साैन्दर्यमा युवा मुग्ध".Nepal News. Retrieved30 October 2021.लिपि नखःकै कार्यक्रममा 'सेभ नेपाः भ्याली' अभियन्ताहरू पनि रञ्जना लिपिमा आफ्नो उपस्थिति देखाए। काठमाडाैं उपत्यकामा विकासका नाममा सम्पदा मासिँदै गएपछि काठमाडाैं उपत्यका (नेपाः भ्याली) बचाउन लागिपरेका हुन्, उनीहरू।
^Khatiwada, Dambar."'राजधानी प्रदेश' र 'नेवा राज्य' : केही भ्रमको खण्डन".Online Khabar.Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved30 October 2021.यो कुनै तर्क हैन, एक ऐतिहासिक सत्य हो । यसलाई पुष्टि गर्न डेशीदेरी जस्तो कुनै विदेशी विद्वानको सहारा लिइरहनु पर्दैन । हाम्रो पुस्ता बाल्यकालमा हुँदासम्म बूढो पुस्ताले काठमाडौं जानुलाई ‘नेपाल जानु’ भन्थे । ‘तीन शहर नेपाल’ भन्ने गीत खुबै चलेको थियो । स्वयं मेरी हजुरआमाले मलाई ‘नेपाल भ्रमणको संस्मरण’ सुनाएको सम्झना छ । मेरा हजुरबा आफूलाई ‘माझ किरातको बाहुन हुँ’ भन्ने गर्नुहुन्थ्यो । ‘माझ किरात’ बाट ‘नेपाल’ गए/आएको २२ दिनको पैदलयात्राको कथा हजुरआमाले बेलीविस्तार सुनाउँदा म मन्त्रमुग्ध भई सुनिरहन्थें ।
^Maharjan, Rajendra."एकल राष्ट्र–राज्यको धङधङी".EKantipur. Kantipur Publication Limited.Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved30 October 2021.
^"Celestial Advice"(PDF).Nepal Law Commission.Archived(PDF) from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved30 October 2021.When we were on the top of Chandragiri Mountain, I asked them- "Which one is Nepal?" They helped me to recognize Bhadgaun (Now Bhaktapur), Patan and Kathmandu. My heart, at that time, felt to be the King of those Three Cities.....also to see the Kathmandu Valley (the then Nepal).....Not to be recognized and arrested by the King of Nepal (Kathmandu) I was using Sayakhu( Woolen Blanket)....We may not conquer Nepal (Kathmandu) without sufficient human resource like in Kurukshetra...
^Thapa, Lekh Bahadur (1 November 2013)."Roots: A Khas story".The Kathmandu Post. Archived fromthe original on 2 November 2013. Retrieved1 November 2013.
^abcLienhard, Siegfried (1992).Songs of Nepal: An Anthology of Nevar Folksongs and Hymns. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas.ISBN81-208-0963-7. Page 3.
^Maharjan, Rajendra."एकल राष्ट्र–राज्यको धङधङी".EKantipur. Kantipur Publication Limited.Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved30 October 2021.आजभन्दा करिब नौ दशकअघि मात्रै देशको नाम ‘नेपाल’ का रूपमा स्विकारिएको हो भने, पहिले खस–पर्वते–गोर्खाली भनिने भाषालाई ‘नेपाली’ नामकरण गरिएको हो ।
^Clark, T. W. (1973). "Nepali and Pahari".Current Trends in Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter. p. 252.
^Glover, Warren W. (1970). "Cognate counts via the Swadesh list in some Tibeto-Burman languages of Nepal". In Hale, Austin; Pike, Kenneth L. (eds.).Tone systems of the Tibeto-Burman languages of Nepal 2: Lexical lists and comparative studies. Urbana, Illinois: Department of Linguistics University of Illinois. pp. 23–130.
^David N. Gellner (1986).Language, caste, religion and territory: Newar identity ancient and modern, European Journal of Sociology, p.102-148
^Bajracharya, Chunda (1985).Mallakalya Chhun Sanskriti ("Some Customs of the Malla Period"). Kathmandu: Kashinath Tamot for Nepal Bhasa Study and Research Centre.
^Levy, Robert I. (1990)Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.ISBN81-208-1038-4. Page 15.
^Los Angeles County Museum of Art and Pal, Pratapaditya (1985)Art of Nepal: A Catalogue of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art Collection. University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-05407-3. Page 19.
^Hutt, Michael (December 1986)."Diversity and Change in the Languages"(PDF).CNAS Journal. Tribhuvan University.Archived(PDF) from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved20 March 2011. Page 10.
^abLienhard, Siegfried (1992).Songs of Nepal: An Anthology of Nevar Folksongs and Hymns. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas.ISBN81-208-0963-7. Page 4.
^LeVine, Sarah and Gellner, David N. (2005).Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in Twentieth-Century Nepal. Harvard University Press.ISBN0674019083, 9780674019089. Pages 47–49.
^Gurung, Kishor (November–December 1993)."What is Nepali Music?"(PDF).Himal: 11.Archived(PDF) from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved4 April 2014.
^शुक्रराज अस्पताल स्मारिका २०५७, Page 52, नेपालभाषाको पुनर्जागरणमा शुक्रराज शास्त्री by सह-प्रा. प्रेमशान्ति तुलाधर
^Bajracharya, Phanindra Ratna (2003).Who's Who in Nepal Bhasha. Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Academy. Page 27.
^LeVine, Sarah and Gellner, David N. (2005).Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in Twentieth-Century Nepal. Harvard University Press.ISBN0-674-01908-3,ISBN978-0-674-01908-9. Pages 47–49.
^Timalsina, Ramji (Spring 2011)."Language and Political Discourse in Nepal"(PDF).CET Journal. Itahari: Itahari Research Centre, Circle of English Teachers (CET). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 15 December 2012. Retrieved28 February 2012. Page 14.
^Eagle, Sonia (1999)."The Language Situation in Nepal".Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. Scribd.Archived from the original on 23 March 2023. Retrieved28 February 2012. Page 310.
^Malla, Kamal P. (1985).The Newar Language: A Working Outline. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa. pp. 31–32.
^Hale, Austin; Shrestha, Kedār (2006).Newar (Nepāl Bhāsā). Münich: Lincom Europa. pp. 23–36.
^Otter, Felix (2021).A Course in Reading Classical Newari: Selections from the Vetālapañcaviṃśati. Heidelberg: xasia eBooks. pp. 11–28.ISBN978-3-946742-94-4.
^From the review article on "Dictionary of classical Newari compiled from manuscript sources." With the financial support of Toyota Foundation, Japan, Nepal Bhasa Dictionary Committee. Cwasā Pāsā. Kathmandu: Modern Printing Press, Jamal 2000, pp. XXXV, 530.ISBN99933-31-60-0"
Bendix, E. (1974) ‘Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman contact as seen through Nepali and Newari verb tenses’, International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics 3.1: 42–59.
—— (1992) ‘The grammaticalization of responsibility and evidence: the interactional potential of evidential categories in Newari’, in J. Hill and J.T. Irvine (eds) Responsibility and Evidence in Oral Discourse, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Driem, G. van (1993) ‘The Newar verb in Tibeto-Burman perspective’, Acta Linguistica Hafniensia 26: 23–43.
Genetti, C. (1988) ‘A syntactic correlate of topicality in Newari narrative’, in S. Thompson and J. Haiman (eds) Clause Combining in Grammar and Discourse, Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
—— (1994) ‘A descriptive and historical account of the Dolakha Newari dialect’, Monumenta Serindica 24, Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo: Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
Hale, A. (1973) ‘On the form of the verbal basis in Newari’, in Braj Kachru et al. (eds) Issues in Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Henry and Renee Kahane, Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
—— (1980) ‘Person markers: finite conjunct and disjunct forms in Newari’, in R. Trail (ed.) Papers in Southeast Asian Linguistics 7 (Pacific Linguistics Series A, no. 53), Canberra: Australian National University.
—— (1985) ‘Noun phrase form and cohesive function in Newari’, in U. Piepel and G. Stickel (eds.) Studia Linguistica Diachronica et Synchronica, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
—— (1986) ‘Users’ guide to the Newari dictionary’, in T. Manandhar (ed.) Newari–English Dictionary, Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.
—— (1994) ‘Entailed kin reference and Newari -mha’, paper presented to the 27th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics, Paris, France.
Hale, A. and Mahandhar, T. (1980) ‘Case and role in Newari’, in R. Trail (ed.) Papers in Southeast Asian Linguistics 7 (Pacific Linguistics Series A, no. 53), Canberra: Australian National University.
Hargreaves, D. (1986) ‘Independent verbs and auxiliary functions in Newari’ Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society 12: 401–12.
—— (1991) ‘The conceptual structure of intentional action: data from Kathmandu Newari’, Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society 17: 379–89.
—— (1996) ‘From interrogation to topicalization: PTB *la in Kathmandu Newar’, Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 19.2: 31–44.
Jørgenson, H. (1931) ‘A dictionary of the Classical Newari’, Det. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk-filologiske Meddelelser 23.1.
—— (1941) ‘A grammar of the Classical Newari’, Det. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk-filologiske Meddelelser 27.3.
Jos, L. K. (1992) [NS 1112] ‘Nep%l bh%M%y% bh%M%vaijñ%nika vyakaraNa’ (A linguistic grammar of nep%l bh%Ma (Newar)), Kathmandu: Lacoul Publications.
Kansakar, T. R. (1982) ‘Morphophonemics of the Newari verb’, in T.R. Kansakar (ed.) Occasional Papers in Nepalese Linguistics 12–29. Linguistic Society of Nepal Publication No.1, Lalitpur, Nepal.
—— (1997) ‘The Newar language: a profile’, New%h Vijñ%na: Journal of Newar Studies 1.1: 11–28.
Kölver, U. (1976) ‘Satztypen und verbsubcategorisierung der Newari’, Structura 10, Munich: Fink Verlag.
—— (1977) ‘Nominalization and lexicalization in Newari’, Arbeiten des Kölner Universalen-Projekts 30.
Kölver, U. and Shresthacarya, I. (1994) A Dictionary of Contemporary Newari, Bonn: VGH Wissenschaftsverlag.
Manandhar, T. (1986) Newari-English Dictionary, Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.
Malla, K. P. (1982) Classical Newari Literature: A Sketch, Kathmandu: Educational Enterprise Pvt. Ltd.
—— (1985) ‘The Newari language: a working outline’, Monumenta Serindica No. 14., Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo: Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
Shakya, D. R. (1992) ‘Nominal and verbal morphology in six dialects of Newari’, unpublished masters thesis, University of Oregon.
Shrestha, Uma (1990) ‘Social networks and code-switching in the Newar community of Kathmandu City’, unpublished PhD dissertation, Ball State University.
Shresthacharya, I. (1976) ‘Some types of reduplication in the Newari verb phrase’, Contributions to Nepalese Studies 3.1: 117–27.
%2c_Six_Folios_From_a_Book_of_Charms_LACMA_M.82.169.11.jpg)
