This was written asNu Tireni in theMāori language (spelledNu Tirani in Te Tiriti o Waitangi). In 1834 a document written in Māori and entitled "He Wakaputanga o te Rangatiratanga o Nu Tireni" was translated into English and became theDeclaration of the Independence of New Zealand. It was prepared byTe W(h)akaminenga o Nga Rangatiratanga o Nga Hapu o Nu Tireni, theUnited Tribes of New Zealand, and a copy was sent to KingWilliam IV who had already acknowledged the flag of the United Tribes of New Zealand, and who recognised the declaration in a letter fromLord Glenelg.[20][21]
Aotearoa (pronounced[aɔˈtɛaɾɔa] in Māori and/ˌaʊtɛəˈroʊ.ə/ in English; often translated as 'land of the long white cloud')[22] is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans;Aotearoa originally referred to just theNorth Island.[23] Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands, includingTe Ika-a-Māui ('the fish ofMāui') for the North Island andTe Waipounamu ('the waters ofgreenstone') orTe Waka o Aoraki ('the canoe ofAoraki') for theSouth Island.[24] Early European maps labelled the islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island), and South (Stewart Island /Rakiura).[25] In 1830, mapmakers began to use "North" and "South" on their maps to distinguish the two largest islands, and by 1907, this was the accepted norm.[19] TheNew Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013. This set the names asNorth Island orTe Ika-a-Māui, andSouth Island orTe Waipounamu.[26] For each island, either its English or Māori name can be used, or both can be used together.[26] Similarly the Māori and English names for the whole country are sometimes used together (Aotearoa New Zealand);[27][28] however, this has no official recognition.[29]
The first people to reach New Zealand were Polynesians in ocean goingwaka, who are believed to have arrived in several waves, approximately between 1280 and 1350 CE. According to mostMāori oral traditions, the islands were first discovered by the semi-legendary explorerKupe while in pursuit of a giant octopus.[33] These traditions held that Kupe was then followed by a great fleet of settlers, who set out fromHawaiki in eastern Polynesia in around 1350.[34] The existence of a single great fleet which settled New Zealand has since been superseded by the belief that the majority of settlement was a planned and deliberate event that occurred over several decades.[35][36][37][38][39] The exact date of this settlement is unclear, with recent sources favouring settlement in the 14th century. Whilemitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations suggest that New Zealand was first settled between 1250 and 1300,[24][40][41] no human remains, artefacts or structures can be reliably dated to earlier than the Kaharoa eruption ofMount Tarawera in around 1314 CE.[42] This scenario is also consistent with a debated third line of oral evidence,[43] traditional genealogies (whakapapa) which point to around 1350 as a probable arrival date for several of themigratory waka (canoes) from which many Māori trace their descent.[44][45] Some Māori later migrated to theChatham Islands where they developed their distinctMoriori culture;[46] a later 1835 invasion by Māori iwi resulted in the massacre and virtual extinction of the Moriori.[47]
In a hostile 1642 encounter betweenNgāti Tūmatakōkiri and Dutch explorerAbel Tasman's crew,[48][49] four of Tasman's crew members were killed, and at least one Māori was hit bycanister shot.[50] Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769, when British explorerJames Cook mapped almost the entire coastline.[49] Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European andNorth Americanwhaling,sealing, and trading ships. They traded European food, metal tools, weapons, and other goods for timber, Māori food, artefacts, and water.[51] The introduction of the potato and themusket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare. Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns.[52] The resulting intertribalMusket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori.[53] From the early 19th century, Christianmissionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventuallyconverting most of the Māori population.[54] The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor.[55]
TheBritish Government appointedJames Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832.[56] His duties, given to him by Governor Bourke in Sydney, were to protect settlers and traders "of good standing", prevent "outrages" against Māori, and apprehend escaped convicts.[56][57] In 1835, following an announcement of impending French settlement byCharles de Thierry, the nebulousUnited Tribes of New Zealand sent aDeclaration of Independence to KingWilliam IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection.[56] Ongoing unrest, the proposed settlement of New Zealand by theNew Zealand Company (which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted theColonial Office to send CaptainWilliam Hobson to claim sovereignty for theUnited Kingdom and negotiate a treaty with the Māori.[58] TheTreaty of Waitangi was first signed in theBay of Islands on 6 February 1840.[59] In response to the New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement inWellington,[60][61] Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign.[62] With the signing of the treaty and declaration of sovereignty, the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase.[63]
New Zealand was administered as a dependency of theColony of New South Wales until becoming a separateCrown colony, theColony of New Zealand, on 3 May 1841.[64][65] Armed conflict began between the colonial government and Māori in 1843 with theWairau Affray over land and disagreements over sovereignty. These conflicts, mainly in the North Island, saw thousands of imperial troops and the Royal Navy come to New Zealand and became known as theNew Zealand Wars. Following these armed conflicts, large areas ofMāori land were confiscated by the government to meet settler demands.[66]
A meeting of European and Māori residents ofHawke's Bay Province. Engraving, 1863.
The colony gained arepresentative government in 1852, and thefirst Parliament met in 1854.[67] In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters (exceptnative policy, which was granted in the mid-1860s).[67] Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premierAlfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer thecapital from Auckland to a locality nearCook Strait.[68][69] Wellington was chosen for its central location, with Parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865.[70]
In 1886, New Zealand annexed the volcanicKermadec Islands, about 1,000 km (620 mi) northeast of Auckland. Since 1937, the islands are uninhabited except for about six people atRaoul Island station. These islands put the northern border of New Zealand at 29 degrees South latitude.[71] After the 1982UNCLOS, the islands contributed significantly to New Zealand'sexclusive economic zone.[72]
In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, KingEdward VII proclaimed New Zealand aDominion within theBritish Empire,[77] reflecting its self-governing status.[78] In 1947, New Zealandadopted theStatute of Westminster, confirming that theBritish Parliament could no longer legislate for the country without its consent. The British government's residual legislative powers were later removed by theConstitution Act 1986, and final rights of appeal to British courts were abolished in 2003.[67]
New Zealand is long and narrow—over 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of 400 kilometres (250 mi)[93]—with about 15,000 km (9,300 mi) of coastline[94] and a total land area of 268,000 square kilometres (103,500 sq mi).[95] Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline, the country has extensive marine resources. Itsexclusive economic zone is one of the largest in the world, covering more than 15 times its land area.[96]
The South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand. It is divided along its length by theSouthern Alps.[97] There are 18 peaks over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft), the highest of which isAoraki / Mount Cook at 3,724 metres (12,218 ft).[98]Fiordland's steep mountains and deepfiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this southwestern corner of the South Island.[99] The North Island is less mountainous but ismarked by volcanism.[100] The highly activeTaupō Volcanic Zone has formed a largevolcanic plateau, punctuated by the North Island's highest mountain,Mount Ruapehu (2,797 metres (9,177 ft)). The plateau also hosts the country's largest lake,Lake Taupō,[88] nestled in thecaldera of one of the world's most activesupervolcanoes.[101] New Zealand is prone toearthquakes.
New Zealand, together with Australia, is part of a wider region known asAustralasia.[106] It also forms the southwestern extremity of the geographic and ethnographic region calledPolynesia.[107]Oceania is a wider region encompassing theAustralian continent, New Zealand, and various island countries in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in theseven-continent model.[108]
New Zealand's climate is predominantly temperatemaritime (Köppen: Cfb), with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 °C (50 °F) in the south to 16 °C (61 °F) in the north.[109] Historicalmaxima and minima are 42.4 °C (108.32 °F) inRangiora,Canterbury and −25.6 °C (−14.08 °F) inRanfurly,Otago.[110] Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on theWest Coast of the South Island tosemi-arid inCentral Otago and theMackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury andsubtropical inNorthland.[111][112] Of the seven largest cities,Christchurch is the driest, receiving on average only 618 millimetres (24.3 in) of rain per year and Wellington the wettest, receiving almost twice that amount.[113] Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2,000 hours of sunshine. The southern and southwestern parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1,400–1,600 hours; the northern and northeastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2,400–2,500 hours.[114] The general snow season is early June until early October, thoughcold snaps can occur outside this season.[115] Snowfall is common in the eastern and southern parts of the South Island and mountain areas across the country.[109]
Average daily temperatures and rainfall for selected towns and cities of New Zealand[116]
New Zealand'sgeographic isolation for 80 million years[117] and islandbiogeography has influenced evolution of the country's species ofanimals,fungi andplants. Physical isolation has caused biological isolation, resulting in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species.[118][119] The flora and fauna of New Zealand were originally thought to have originated from New Zealand's fragmentation off from Gondwana, however more recent evidence postulates species resulted from dispersal.[120] About 82% of New Zealand's indigenousvascular plants areendemic, covering 1,944 species across 65genera.[121][122] The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand, including lichen-forming species, is not known, nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic, but one estimate suggests there are about 2,300 species of lichen-forming fungi in New Zealand[121] and 40% of these are endemic.[123] The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergentpodocarps, or bysouthern beech in cooler climates.[124] The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which aretussock.[125]
Before the arrival of humans, an estimated 80% of the land was covered in forest, with onlyhigh alpine, wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees.[126] Massivedeforestation occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement.[127] Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23% of the land in 1997.[128]
The giantHaast's eagle died out when Māori hunted its main prey, themoa, to extinction.
Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles (tuatara,skinks andgeckos),frogs,[132] such as the protected endangeredHamilton's Frog,spiders,[133] insects (wētā),[134] and snails.[135] Some, such as the tuatara, are so unique that they have been calledliving fossils.[136] Three species of bats (one since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones froma unique, mouse-sized land mammal at least 16 million years old.[137][138] Marine mammals, however, are abundant, with almost half the world'scetaceans (whales, dolphins, andporpoises) and large numbers offur seals reported in New Zealand waters.[139] Many seabirds breed in New Zealand, a third of them unique to the country.[140] Morepenguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country, with 13 of the world's 18 penguin species.[141]
Since human arrival, almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty-one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, and one bat. Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced.[130] However, New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering, and ecologicalrestoration of islands and otherprotected areas.[142][143][144][145]
TheNew Zealand Parliament holdslegislative power and consists of the king and theHouse of Representatives.[153] It also included an upper house, theLegislative Council, until this was abolished in 1950.[153] Thesupremacy of parliament over the Crown and other government institutions was established in England by theBill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand.[153] The House of Representatives is democratically elected, and a government is formed from the party orcoalition with the majority of seats. If no majority is formed, aminority government can be formed if support from other parties duringconfidence and supply votes is assured.[153] The governor-general appoints ministers under advice from the prime minister, who is byconvention theparliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition.[154]Cabinet, formed by ministers and led by the prime minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions.[155] Members of Cabinet make major decisions collectively and are thereforecollectively responsible for the consequences of these decisions.[156] The 42nd and current prime minister, since 27 November 2023, isChristopher Luxon.[157]
Aparliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election.[158] Almost all general elections between1853 and1993 were held under thefirst-past-the-post voting system.[159] Since the1996 election, a form ofproportional representation calledmixed-member proportional (MMP) has been used.[147] Under the MMP system, each person has two votes; one is for a candidate standing in the voter'selectorate, and the other is for a party. Based on the 2018 census data, there are 72 electorates (which include sevenMāori electorates in which only Māori can optionally vote),[160] and the remaining 48 of the 120 seats are assigned so that representation in Parliament reflects the party vote, with the threshold that a party must win at least one electorate or 5% of the total party vote before it is eligible for a seat.[161] Elections since the 1930s have been dominated by twopolitical parties,National andLabour. More parties have been represented in Parliament since the introduction of MMP.[162]
New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states.[166] As of 2023,[update] the country is ranked second in the strength of its democratic institutions,[167] and third in government transparency andlack of corruption.[168]LGBT rights in the nation are also recognised as among the most tolerant inOceania.[169] New Zealand ranks highly for civic participation in the political process, with 82%voter turnout during recent general elections, compared to anOECD average of 69%.[170] However, this is untrue for local council elections; a historically low 36% of eligible New Zealanders voted in the2022 local elections, compared with an already low 42% turnout in2019.[171][172][173] A 2017human rights report by theUnited States Department of State noted that the New Zealand government generallyrespected the rights of individuals, but voiced concerns regarding the social status of the Māori population.[174] In terms ofstructural discrimination, theNew Zealand Human Rights Commission has asserted that there is strong, consistent evidence that it is a real and ongoing socioeconomic issue.[175] One example of structural inequality in New Zealand can be seen in the criminal justice system. According to theMinistry of Justice, Māori are overrepresented, comprising 45% of New Zealanders convicted of crimes and 53% of those imprisoned, while only being 16.5% of the population.[176][177]
Map of regions (coloured) and territorial authorities (outlined) in New Zealand
The early European settlers divided New Zealand intoprovinces, which had a degree of autonomy.[178] Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways, education, land sales, and other policies, government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876.[179] The provinces are remembered inregional public holidays[180] and sporting rivalries.[181]
Since 1876, various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government.[178][182] In 1989, the government reorganisedlocal government into the current two-tier structure ofregional councils andterritorial authorities.[183] The249 municipalities[183] that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils.[184] The regional councils' role is to regulate "the natural environment with particular emphasis onresource management",[183] while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage, water, local roads, building consents, and other local matters.[185][186] Five of the territorial councils areunitary authorities and also act as regional councils.[186] The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils, 53district councils, and theChatham Islands Council. While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority, it undertakes many functions of a regional council.[187]
The Realm of New Zealand, one of 15Commonwealth realms,[188] is the entire area over which the king or queen of New Zealand issovereign and comprises New Zealand,Tokelau, theRoss Dependency, theCook Islands, andNiue.[146] The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states infree association with New Zealand.[189][190] The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries, but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence. Tokelau is classified as anon-self-governing territory, but is administered by a council of three elders (one from each Tokelauanatoll).[191] The Ross Dependency is New Zealand'sterritorial claim in Antarctica, where it operates theScott Base research facility.[192]New Zealand nationality law treats all parts of the realm equally, so most people born in New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, and the Ross Dependency are New Zealand citizens.[193][n 8]
During the period of the New Zealand colony, Britain was responsible for external trade and foreign relations.[195] The 1923 and 1926Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate its own politicaltreaties, and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan. On 3 September 1939, New Zealand allied itself with Britain anddeclared war on Germany with Prime MinisterMichael Joseph Savage proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand".[196]
In 1951, the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests,[197] while New Zealand joinedAustralia and theUnited States in theANZUS security treaty.[198] The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over theVietnam War,[199] the refusal of the United States to admonish France after thesinking of theRainbow Warrior,[200] disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues, andNew Zealand's nuclear-free policy.[201][202] Despite the United States's suspension of ANZUS obligations, the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend.[203] Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, withfree trade agreements andtravel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions.[204] In 2013[update] there were about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which is equivalent to 15% of the population of New Zealand.[205]
Historically, extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand's economy, focusing at different times on sealing, whaling,flax, gold,kauri gum, and native timber.[241] The first shipment of refrigerated meat on theDunedin in 1882 led to the establishment of meat and dairy exports to Britain, a trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand.[242] High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s.[243] In 1973, New Zealand's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined theEuropean Economic Community[244] and other compounding factors, such as the1973 oil and1979 energy crises, led to a severeeconomic depression.[245] Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed bythe World Bank.[246] In the mid-1980s New Zealand deregulated itsagricultural sector by phasing outsubsidies over a three-year period.[247][248] Since 1984, successive governments engaged in majormacroeconomic restructuring (known first asRogernomics and thenRuthanasia), rapidly transforming New Zealand from aprotectionist and highly regulated economy to a liberalisedfree-trade economy.[249][250] New Zealand's gold production in 2015 was 12 tonnes.[251]
Unemployment peaked just above 10% in 1991 and 1992,[253] following the1987 share market crash, but eventually fell to 3.7% in 2007 (ranking third from twenty-seven comparable OECD nations).[253] However, theglobal financial crisis that followed had a major effect on New Zealand, with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters, the longest recession in over thirty years,[254][255] and unemployment rising back to 7% in late 2009.[256] The lowest unemployment rate recorded using the current methodology was in December 2021 during theCOVID-19 pandemic, at 3.2%.[257] Unemployment rates for different age groups follow similar trends but are consistently higher among youth. During the September 2021 quarter, the general unemployment rate was around 3.2%, while the unemployment rate for youth aged 15 to 24 was 9.2%.[253][258] New Zealand has experienced a series of "brain drains" since the 1970s[259] that still continue today.[260] Nearly one-quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas, mostly in Australia and Britain, which is the largest proportion from any developed nation.[261] In recent decades, however, a "brain gain" has brought in educated professionals from Europe and less developed countries.[262][263] Today New Zealand's economy benefits from a high level ofinnovation.[264]
Poverty in New Zealand is characterised by growing income inequality; wealth in New Zealand ishighly concentrated,[265] with the top 1% of the population owning 16% of the country's wealth, and the richest 5% owning 38%, leaving a stark contrast where half the population, includingstate beneficiaries and pensioners, receive less than $24,000.[266] Moreover,child poverty in New Zealand has been identified by the Government as a major societal issue;[267][268] the country has 12.0% of children living in low-income households that have less than 50% of the median equivalised disposable household income as of June 2022[update].[269] Poverty has a disproportionately high effect in ethnic-minority households, with a quarter (23.3%) of Māori children and almost a third (28.6%) of Pacific Islander children living in poverty as of 2020[update].[267]
Trade
New Zealand is heavily dependent on international trade,[270] particularly in agricultural products.[271] Exports account for 24% of its output,[94] making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and globaleconomic slowdowns. Food products made up 55% of the value of all the country's exports in 2014; wood was the second largest earner (7%).[272] New Zealand's main trading partners, as at June 2018[update], are China (NZ$27.8b), Australia ($26.2b), theEuropean Union ($22.9b), the United States ($17.6b), and Japan ($8.4b).[273] On 7 April 2008, New Zealand and China signed theNew Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement, the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country.[274] In July 2023, New Zealand and the European Union entered into theEU–New Zealand Free Trade Agreement, which eliminated tariffs on several goods traded between the two regions.[275] This free trade agreement expanded on the pre-existing free trade agreement[276] and saw a reduction in tariffs on meat and dairy[277] in response to feedback from the affected industries.[278]
The service sector is the largest sector in the economy, followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction.[94]Tourism plays a significant role in the economy, contributing $12.9 billion (or 5.6%) to New Zealand's total GDP and supporting 7.5% of the total workforce in 2016.[279] In 2017, international visitor arrivals were expected to increase at a rate of 5.4% annually up to 2022.[279]
Wool has historically been one of New Zealand's major exports.
Wool was New Zealand's major agricultural export during the late 19th century.[241] Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues,[241] but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities,[280] and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers.[281] In contrast,dairy farming increased, with the number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007,[282] to become New Zealand's largest export earner.[283] In the year to June 2018, dairy products accounted for 17.7% ($14.1 billion) of total exports,[273] and the country's largest company,Fonterra, controls almost one-third of the international dairy trade.[284] Other exports in 2017–18 were meat (8.8%), wood and wood products (6.2%), fruit (3.6%), machinery (2.2%) and wine (2.1%).[273]New Zealand's wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy, the number of vineyards doubling over the same period,[285] overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007.[286][287]
The provision ofwater supply and sanitation is generally of good quality. Regional authorities provide water abstraction, treatment and distribution infrastructure to most developed areas.[289][290]
New Zealand's transport network comprises 94,000 kilometres (58,410 mi) of roads, including 199 kilometres (124 mi) of motorways,[291] and 4,128 kilometres (2,565 mi) of railway lines.[94] Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services, although the private car is the predominant mode of transport.[292] Therailways were privatised in 1993 but were re-nationalised by the government in stages between 2004 and 2008. The state-owned enterpriseKiwiRail now operates the railways, with the exception of commuter services in Auckland and Wellington, which are operated byAuckland One Rail andTransdev Wellington respectively.[293] Railways run the length of the country, although most lines now carry freight rather than passengers.[294] The road and rail networks in the two main islands are linked byroll-on/roll-off ferries between Wellington andPicton, operated byInterislander (part of KiwiRail) andBluebridge. Most international visitors arrive via air.[295] New Zealand hasfour international airports:Auckland,Christchurch,Queenstown andWellington; however, only Auckland and Christchurch offer non-stop flights to countries other than Australia or Fiji.[296]
Early indigenous contribution to science in New Zealand was by Māoritohunga accumulating knowledge of agricultural practice and the effects of herbal remedies in the treatment of illness and disease.[301]Cook's voyages in the 1700s andDarwin's in 1835 had important scientific botanical and zoological objectives.[302] The establishment of universities in the 19th century fostered scientific discoveries by notable New Zealanders includingErnest Rutherford for splitting the atom,William Pickering for rocket science,Maurice Wilkins for helping discover DNA,Beatrice Tinsley for galaxy formation,Archibald McIndoe for plastic surgery, andAlan MacDiarmid for conducting polymers.[303]
Crown Research Institutes (CRIs) were formed in 1992 from existing government-owned research organisations. Their role is to research and develop new science, knowledge, products and services across the economic, environmental, social and cultural spectrum for the benefit of New Zealand.[304] The total gross expenditure onresearch and development (R&D) as a proportion of GDP rose to 1.37% in 2018, up from 1.23% in 2015. New Zealand ranks 21st in the OECD for its gross R&D spending as a percentage of GDP.[305] New Zealand was ranked 25th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[306]
TheNew Zealand Space Agency was created by the government in 2016 for space policy, regulation and sector development.Rocket Lab was the notable first commercial rocket launcher in the country.[307]
The2023 New Zealand census enumerated a resident population of 4,993,923, an increase of 6.3% over the2018 census figure.[4] As of March 2025, the total population has risen to an estimated 5,231,143.[308] New Zealand's population increased at a rate of 1.9% per year in the seven years ended June 2020. In September 2020Statistics New Zealand reported that the population had climbed above 5 million people in September 2019, according to population estimates based on the 2018 census.[309][n 9]
New Zealand's population today is concentrated to the north of the country, with around 76.4% of the population living in the North Island and 23.6% in the South Island as of June 2024.[311] During the 20th century, New Zealand's populationdrifted north. In 1921, the country'smedian centre of population was located in the Tasman Sea west ofLevin inManawatū-Whanganui; by 2017, it had moved 280 km (170 mi) north to nearKawhia in Waikato.[312]
New Zealand is a predominantly urban country, with 84.3% of the population living inurban areas, and 51.0% of the population living in the seven cities with populations exceeding 100,000.[311]Auckland, with over 1.4 million residents, is by far the largest city.[311] New Zealand cities generally rank highly on international livability measures. For instance, in 2016, Auckland was ranked the world's thirdmost liveable city and Wellington the twelfth by the Mercer Quality of Living Survey.[313]
Themedian age of the New Zealand population at the 2018 census was 37.4 years,[314] with life expectancy in 2017–2019 being 80.0 years for males and 83.5 years for females.[315] While New Zealand is experiencingsub-replacement fertility, with a total fertility rate of 1.6 in 2020, the fertility rate is above the OECD average.[316][317] By 2050, the median age is projected to rise to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older to rise from 18% to 29%.[318] In 2016 the leading cause of death wascancer at 30.3%, followed byischaemic heart disease (14.9%) andcerebrovascular disease (7.4%).[319] As of 2016[update], total expenditure onhealth care (including private sector spending) is 9.2% of GDP.[320]
Pedestrians onQueen Street in Auckland, an ethnically diverse city
In the2023 census, a total of 67.8% of New Zealand residents identified ethnically as European, with 54.1% identifying as European alone,[321] and 17.8% asMāori, with 7.3% identifying as Māori alone. Other major ethnic groups includeAsian (17.3% total, 15.7% alone) andPacific peoples (8.9%, 5.5% alone).[n 3][4] New Zealand has a large multiethnic population, with the largest mixed groups being European and Māori (8.2%), Māori and Pacific peoples (0.9%), and European and Asian (0.9%).[322] The population has become more multicultural and diverse in recent decades: in 1961, the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92% European and 7% Māori, with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1%.[323] However, New Zealand's non-European population is disproportionately concentrated in the North Island and especially in theAuckland region: while Auckland is home to 33% of New Zealand's population, it is home to 62% of the country's Pasifika population and 60% of its Asian population.[4]
While thedemonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander, the informal "Kiwi" is commonly used both internationally[324] and by locals.[325] The Māori loanwordPākehā has been used to refer toNew Zealanders of European descent, although some reject this name. The word today is increasingly used to refer to all non-Polynesian New Zealanders.[326]
The Māori were the first people to reach New Zealand, followed by the earlyEuropean settlers. Following colonisation, immigrants were predominantly from Britain, Ireland and Australia because of restrictive policies similar to theWhite Australia policy.[327] There was also significantDutch,Dalmatian,[328]German, andItalian immigration, together with indirect European immigration through Australia, North America, South America and South Africa.[329][330] Net migration increased after theSecond World War; in the 1970s and 1980s policies on immigration were relaxed, and immigration from Asia was promoted.[330][331] In 2009–10, an annual target of 45,000–50,000 permanent residence approvals was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service—more than one new migrant for every 100 New Zealand residents.[332] In the 2018 census, 27.4% of people counted were not born in New Zealand, up from 25.2% in the2013 census. Over half (52.4%) of New Zealand's overseas-born population lives in the Auckland Region.[333] The United Kingdom remains the largest source of New Zealand's immigrant population, with around a quarter of all overseas-born New Zealanders born there; other major sources of New Zealand's overseas-born population areChina,India,Australia,South Africa,Fiji andSamoa.[334] The number of fee-payinginternational students increased sharply in the late 1990s, with more than 20,000 studying in publictertiary institutions in 2002.[335]
Speakers of Māori according to the 2013 census[336]
Less than 5%
More than 5%
More than 10%
More than 20%
More than 30%
More than 40%
More than 50%
English is the predominant language in New Zealand, spoken by 95.4% of the population.[337]New Zealand English is a variety of the language with a distinctiveaccent and lexicon.[338] It is similar toAustralian English, and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart.[339] The most prominent differences between the New Zealand English dialect and other English dialects are the shifts in the short front vowels: the short-i sound (as inkit) has centralised towards theschwa sound (thea incomma andabout); the short-e sound (as indress) has moved towards the short-i sound; and the short-a sound (as intrap) has moved to the short-e sound.[340]
After the Second World War, Māori were discouraged or forced from speaking their own language (te reo Māori) in schools and workplaces, and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas.[341] The Native Schools Act 1867 required instruction in English in all schools, and while there was no official policy banning children from speaking Māori, many suffered fromphysical abuse if they did so.[342][343][344] The Māori language has recently undergone a process of revitalisation,[345] being declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 1987,[346] and is spoken by 4.0% of the population.[337][n 10] There are now Māori language-immersion schools and two television channels that broadcast predominantly in Māori.[348]Many places have both their Māori and English names officially recognised.[349]
As recorded in the 2018 census,[337]Samoan is the most widely spoken non-official language (2.2%), followed by "Northern Chinese" (includingMandarin, 2.0%),Hindi (1.5%), and French (1.2%).New Zealand Sign Language was reported to be understood by 22,986 people (0.5%); it became one of New Zealand's official languages in 2006.[350]
ARātana church on a hill nearRaetihi. The two-tower construction is characteristic of Rātana buildings.[351]
At the 2023 census, 51.6% of population stated they hadno religion,[352] up from 48.2% in 2018 census.[337]Christians are the single largest religious group, forming 32.3% of the population,[352] compared to 36.5% in 2018.[337]Hindus are the second largest religious minority, forming the 2.9% of population, followed byMuslims on 1.5%.[352] The Auckland Region exhibited the greatest religious diversity.[353]
Primary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16, with the majority of children attending from the age of 5.[354] There are 13 school years and attendingstate (public) schools is free to New Zealand citizens and permanent residents from a person's 5th birthday to the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday.[355] New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99%,[94] and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification.[354] There are five types of government-owned tertiary institutions:universities, colleges of education,polytechnics, specialist colleges, andwānanga,[356] in addition to private training establishments.[357] In 2021, in the population aged 25–64; 13% had no formal qualification, 21% had a school qualification, 28% had a tertiary certificate or diploma, and 35% have abachelor's degree or higher.[358] TheOECD'sProgramme for International Student Assessment ranks New Zealand as the 28th best in the OECD for maths, 13th best for science, and 11th best for reading.[359]
Late 20th-century house-post depicting the navigatorKupe fighting two sea creatures
Early Māori adapted the tropically based eastPolynesian culture in line with the challenges associated with a larger and more diverse environment, eventually developing their own distinctive culture. Social organisation was largely communal with families (whānau), subtribes (hapū) and tribes (iwi) ruled by a chief (rangatira), whose position was subject to the community's approval.[360] The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Māori culture,[361][362] particularly with the introduction of Christianity.[363] However, Māori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part oftheir identity, and Māori kinship roles resemblethose of other Polynesian peoples.[364] More recently,American,Australian,Asian and otherEuropean cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand. Non-Māori Polynesian cultures are also apparent, withPasifika, the world's largest Polynesian festival, now an annual event in Auckland.[365]
The largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged, industrious problem solvers.[366] Modesty was expected and enforced through the "tall poppy syndrome", where high achievers received harsh criticism.[367] At the time, New Zealand was not known as an intellectual country.[368] From the early 20th century until the late 1960s, Māori culture was suppressed by the attemptedassimilation of Māori into British New Zealanders.[341] In the 1960s, as tertiary education became more available, andcities expanded[369] urban culture began to dominate.[370] However, rural imagery and themes are common in New Zealand's art, literature and media.[371]
New Zealand's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Māori sources. Thesilver fern is an emblem appearing on army insignia and sporting team uniforms.[372] Certain items of popular culture thought to be unique to New Zealand are called "Kiwiana".[372]
As part of the resurgence of Māori culture, the traditional crafts of carving and weaving are now more widely practised, and Māori artists are increasing in number and influence.[373] Most Māori carvings feature human figures, generally with three fingers and either a natural-looking, detailed head or a stylised version.[374] Surface patterns consisting of spirals, ridges, notches and fish scales decorate most carvings.[375] The pre-eminent Māori architecture consisted of carved meeting houses (wharenui) decorated with symbolic carvings and illustrations. These buildings were originally designed to be constantly rebuilt, changing and adapting to different whims or needs.[376]
Māori decorated the white wood of buildings, canoes and cenotaphs using red (a mixture of redochre and shark fat) and black (made from soot) paint and painted pictures of birds, reptiles and other designs on cave walls.[377] Māori tattoos (moko) consisting of coloured soot mixed with gum were cut into the flesh with a bone chisel.[378] Since European arrival paintings and photographs have been dominated by landscapes, originally not as works of art but as factual portrayals of New Zealand.[379] Portraits of Māori were also common, with early painters often portraying them as an ideal race untainted by civilisation.[379] The country's isolation delayed the influence of European artistic trends allowing local artists to develop their own distinctive style ofregionalism.[380] During the 1960s and 1970s, many artists combined traditional Māori and Western techniques, creating unique art forms.[381] New Zealand art and craft has gradually achieved an international audience, with exhibitions in theVenice Biennale in 2001 and the "Paradise Now" exhibition in New York in 2004.[373][382]
Māori cloaks are made of fine flax fibre and patterned with black, red and white triangles, diamonds and other geometric shapes.[383]Greenstone was fashioned into earrings and necklaces, with the most well-known design being thehei-tiki, a distorted human figure sitting cross-legged with its head tilted to the side.[384] Europeans brought English fashion etiquette to New Zealand, and until the 1950s most people dressed up for social occasions.[385] Standards have since relaxed and New Zealand fashion has received a reputation for being casual, practical and lacklustre.[386][387] However, the local fashion industry has grown significantly since 2000, doubling exports and increasing from a handful to about 50 established labels, with some labels gaining international recognition.[387]
Māori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas, and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form.[388] Most early English literature was obtained from Britain, and it was not until the 1950s when local publishing outlets increased that New Zealand literature started to become widely known.[389] Although still largely influenced by global trends (modernism) and events (the Great Depression), writers in the 1930s began to develop stories increasingly focused on their experiences in New Zealand. During this period, literature changed from ajournalistic activity to a more academic pursuit.[390] Participation in the world wars gave some New Zealand writers a new perspective on New Zealand culture and with the post-war expansion of universities local literature flourished.[391] Dunedin is a UNESCOCity of Literature.[392]
Lorde is one of the most internationally successful New Zealand artists.
New Zealand music has been influenced byblues,jazz,country,rock and roll andhip hop, with many of these genres given a unique New Zealand interpretation.[393] Māori developed a variedmusical tradition around songs and chants, including ceremonial performances, laments, and love songs.[394] Instruments (taonga pūoro), such as flutes and percussion, began being used as spiritual tools, entertainment, and signalling devices.[395][396] Early settlers brought over their ethnic music, withbrass bands andchoral music being popular, and musicians began touring New Zealand in the 1860s.[397][398]Pipe bands became widespread during the early 20th century.[399] The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards, and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States.[393] Some artists release Māori language songs, and the Māori tradition-based art ofkapa haka (song and dance) has made a resurgence.[400] TheNew Zealand Music Awards are held annually byRecorded Music NZ; the awards were first held in 1965 byReckitt & Colman as theLoxene Golden Disc awards.[401] Recorded Music NZ also publishes the country'sofficial weekly record charts.[402]
The national cuisine has been described asPacific Rim, incorporating the nativeMāori cuisine and diverse culinary traditions introduced by settlers and immigrants from Europe, Polynesia, and Asia.[416] New Zealand yields produce from land and sea—most crops and livestock, such as maize, potatoes and pigs, were gradually introduced by the early European settlers.[417] Distinctive ingredients or dishes includelamb, salmon,kōura (crayfish),[418]Bluff oysters,whitebait,pāua (abalone), mussels, scallops,pipi andtuatua (types of New Zealand shellfish),[419]kūmara (sweet potato),kiwifruit,tamarillo, andpavlova (considered a national dessert).[420][416] Ahāngī is a traditional Māori method of cooking food using heated rocks buried in a pit oven; still used for large groups on special occasions,[421] such astangihanga.[422]
Most of the major sporting codes played in New Zealand have British origins.[423]Rugby union is considered thenational sport[424] and attracts the most spectators.[425]Golf,netball,tennis andcricket have the highest rates of adult participation, while netball, rugby union andfootball (soccer) are particularly popular among young people.[425][426]Horse racing is one of the most popularspectator sports in New Zealand and was part of the "rugby, racing, and beer" subculture during the 1960s.[427] Around 54% of New Zealand adolescents participate in sports for their school.[426] Victorious rugby tours to Australia and the United Kingdom in thelate 1880s and theearly 1900s played an early role in instilling a national identity.[428] Māori participation in European sports was particularly evident in rugby, and the country's team performs ahaka, a traditional Māori challenge, before international matches.[429] New Zealand is known for itsextreme sports,adventure tourism[430] and strongmountaineering tradition, as seen in the success of notable New ZealanderSir Edmund Hillary.[431][432] Other outdoor pursuits such ascycling, fishing, swimming, running,tramping,canoeing, hunting, snowsports, surfing and sailing are also popular.[433] New Zealand has seen regular sailing success in theAmerica's Cup regatta since 1995.[434] The Polynesian sport ofwaka ama racing has experienced a resurgence of interest in New Zealand since the 1980s.[435]
^The proportion of New Zealand's area (excluding estuaries) covered by rivers, lakes and ponds, based on figures from the New Zealand Land Cover Database,[8] is (357526 + 81936) / (26821559 – 92499–26033 – 19216)=1.6%. If estuarine open water, mangroves, and herbaceous saline vegetation are included, the figure is 2.2%.
^The Chatham Islands have aseparate time zone, 45 minutes ahead of the rest of New Zealand.
^Clocks are advanced by an hour from the last Sunday in September until the first Sunday in April.[13] Daylight saving time is also observed in the Chatham Islands, 45 minutes ahead of NZDT.
^A person born on or after 1 January 2006 acquires New Zealand citizenship at birth only if at least one parent is a New Zealand citizen or permanent resident. All persons born on or before 31 December 2005 acquired citizenship at birth (jus soli).[194]
^A provisional estimate initially indicated the milestone was reached six months later in March 2020, before population estimates were rebased from the 2013 census to the 2018 census.[310]
^In 2015, 55% of Māori adults (aged 15 years and over) reported knowledge ofte reo Māori. Of these speakers, 64% use Māori at home and 50,000 can speak the language "very well" or "well".[347]
^International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Fifth Periodic Report of the Government of New Zealand(PDF) (Report). New Zealand Government. 21 December 2007. p. 89. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 24 January 2015. Retrieved18 November 2015.In addition to the Māori language, New Zealand Sign Language is also an official language of New Zealand. The New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006 permits the use of NZSL in legal proceedings, facilitates competency standards for its interpretation and guides government departments in its promotion and use. English, the medium for teaching and learning in most schools, is ade facto official language by virtue of its widespread use. For these reasons, these three languages have special mention in the New Zealand Curriculum.
^"Population clock".Statistics New Zealand.Archived from the original on 19 November 2022. Retrieved15 May 2021. The population estimate shown is automatically calculated daily at 00:00 UTC and is based on data obtained from the population clock on the date shown in the citation.
^There is no official all-numeric date format for New Zealand, but government recommendations generally followAustralian date and time notation. SeeThe Govt.nz style guide, New Zealand Government, 22 July 2020,archived from the original on 25 July 2021, retrieved9 July 2021.
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^Wright, Dawn; Bloomer, Sherman; MacLeod, Christopher; Taylor, Brian; Goodliffe, Andrew (2000). "Bathymetry of the Tonga Trench and Forearc: A Map Series".Marine Geophysical Researches.21 (5):489–512.Bibcode:2000MarGR..21..489W.doi:10.1023/A:1026514914220.S2CID6072675.
^Hillstrom, Kevin; Collier Hillstrom, Laurie (2003).Australia, Oceania, and Antarctica: A Continental Overview of Environmental Issues. Vol. 3.ABC-Clio. p. 25.ISBN9781576076941.... defined here as the continent nation of Australia, New Zealand, and twenty-two other island countries and territories sprinkled over more than 40 million square kilometres of the South Pacific.
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^Diamond, Jared (1990). "New Zealand as an Archipelago: An International Perspective". In Towns, D.; Daugherty, C.; Atkinson, I. (eds.).Ecological Restoration of New Zealand Islands(PDF). "Conservation Sciences Publications" series. Vol. Z. Wellington:New Zealand Department of Conservation. pp. 3–8.Archived(PDF) from the original on 11 January 2014. Retrieved26 November 2013 – via Doc.Govt.nz.
^Constitution Act 1986.New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. 1 January 1987. Section 2.1.Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved15 July 2018.The Sovereign in right of New Zealand is the head of State of New Zealand, and shall be known by the royal style and titles proclaimed from time to time.
^"The electoral cycle".Cabinet Manual. Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. 2008.Archived from the original on 27 January 2018. Retrieved30 April 2017.
^Curtin, Jennifer; Miller, Raymond (21 July 2015)."Political parties".Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand.Archived from the original on 17 June 2023. Retrieved24 July 2023.
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^"Citizenship Act 1977 No 61". Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. 1 December 1977.Archived from the original on 25 February 2017. Retrieved26 May 2017.
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^Trade, Food Security, and Human Rights: The Rules for International Trade in Agricultural Products and the Evolving World Food Crisis.Routledge. 2016. p. 125.ISBN9781317008521.
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^Ranford, Jodie."'Pakeha', Its Origin and Meaning".Māori News. Retrieved20 February 2008.Originally the Pakeha were the early European settlers, however, today 'Pakeha' is used to describe any peoples of non-Maori or non-Polynesian heritage. Pakeha is not an ethnicity but rather a way to differentiate between the historical origins of our settlers, the Polynesians and the Europeans, the Maori and the other.
^Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul; Bardsley, Dianne; Kennedy, Marianna; Major, George (2007)."New Zealand English".Journal of the International Phonetic Association.37 (1):97–102.doi:10.1017/S0025100306002830.
^Drinnan, John (8 July 2016)."'Maori' will remain in the name Maori Television".The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved28 August 2016.According to 2015 figures supplied by Maori TV, its two channels broadcast an average of 72 per cent Māori language content – 59 per cent on the main channel and 99 per cent on Te Reo
^"Sport, Fitness and Leisure".New Zealand Official Yearbook.Statistics New Zealand. 2000. Archived fromthe original on 7 June 2011. Retrieved21 July 2008.Traditionally New Zealanders have excelled in rugby union, which is regarded as the national sport, and track and field athletics.
^Crawford, Scott (January 1999)."Rugby and the Forging of National Identity"(PDF). In Nauright, John (ed.).Sport, Power and Society in New Zealand: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. "ASSH Studies in Sports History" series.Australian Society for Sports History. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 19 January 2012. Retrieved22 January 2011 – via LA84Foundation.org (and Internet Archiave).
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