Cathartidae, known commonly asNew World vultures andcondors, are afamily ofbirds of prey consisting of seven extantspecies in fivegenera. It includes five extantvultures and two extantcondors found in theAmericas. They are known as "New World" vultures to distinguish them fromOld World vultures, with which the Cathartidae does not form a singleclade despite the two being similar in appearance and behavior as a result ofconvergent evolution.
Like othervultures, New World vultures arescavengers, having evolved to feed off of thecarcasses of dead animals without any notable ill effects. Some species of New World vulture (Cathartes sp.) have a good sense of smell, whereas Old World vultures find carcasses exclusively by sight. Other adaptations shared by both Old and New World vultures include a baldhead, devoid offeathers which helps prevent rotting matter from accumulating while feeding, and an extremely disease-resistant digestive system to protect against dangerous pathogens found in decaying meat.
The family Cathartidae was introduced (as the subfamily Cathartinae) by the French ornithologistFrédéric de Lafresnaye in 1839.[1][2] The New World vultures comprise seven species in five genera, beingCoragyps,Cathartes,Gymnogyps,Sarcoramphus, andVultur. Of these, onlyCathartes is notmonotypic.[3] The family's scientific name, Cathartidae, comes fromcathartes, Greek for "purifier".[4] Although New World vultures andOld World vultures are not very closely related, they share many resemblances because ofconvergent evolution.[5] Phylogenetic analyses including all Cathartidae species found two primary clades. The first consists of black vultures (Coragyps atratus) together with the threeCathartes species (lesser yellow-headed vultures(C. burrovianus), greater yellow-headedvultures (C. melambrotus), and turkey vultures (C. aura)), while the second consists of king vultures (Sarcoramphus papa), California condors (Gymnogyps californianus) and Andean condors (Vultur gryphus).[6]
New World vultures were traditionally placed in a family of their own in the Falconiformes.[7] However, in the late 20th century some ornithologists argued that they are more closely related tostorks on the basis ofkaryotype,[8] morphological,[9] and behavioral[10] data. Thus some authorities placed them in theCiconiiformes with storks andherons; Sibley and Monroe (1990) even considered them a subfamily of the storks. This was criticized,[11][12] and an early DNA sequence study[13] was based on erroneous data and subsequently retracted.[14][15][16] There was then an attempt to raise the New World vultures to the rank of an independent order,Cathartiformes, not closely associated with either the birds of prey or the storks and herons.[17]
Recent multi-locus DNA studies on the evolutionary relationships between bird groups[18][19] indicate that New World vultures are related to the other birds of prey, excluding the Falconidae. This analysis argues that New World vultures should either be a part of a new orderAccipitriformes[19] or part of an order (Cathartiformes) closely related to, but distinct from, other birds of prey.[18] New World vultures are asister group to Accipitriformes,[18] a group consisting of Accipitridae, theosprey andsecretarybird.[20] Both groups arebasal members of the recently recognized cladeAfroaves.[18]
The fossil history of the Cathartidae is complex, and many taxa that may possibly have been New World vultures have at some stage been treated as early representatives of the family.[26] There is no unequivocal European record from theNeogene.
It is clear that the Cathartidae had a much higher diversity in thePlio-Pleistocene, rivalling the current diversity of Old World vultures and their relatives in shapes, sizes, and ecological niches. Extinct taxa include:
Diatropornis ("European vulture") Late Eocene/Early Oligocene – ?Middle Oligocene of France[27]
The featherless head of the American black vulture,Coragyps atratus brasiliensis, reduces bacterial growth from eating carrion.
New World vultures are generally large, ranging in length from the lesser yellow-headed vulture at 56–61 centimeters (22–24 inches) up to the California and Andean condors, both of which can reach 120 centimeters (48 inches) in length and weigh 12 or more kilograms (26 or more pounds). Plumage is predominantly black or brown, and is sometimes marked with white. All species have featherless heads and necks.[36] In some, this skin is brightly colored, and in the king vulture it is developed into colorful wattles and outgrowths.
All New World vultures have long, broad wings and a stiff tail, suitable for soaring.[37] They are the best adapted to soaring of all land birds.[38] The feet are clawed but weak and not adapted to grasping.[39] The front toes are long with small webs at their bases.[40] No New World vulture possesses asyrinx,[41] the vocal organ of birds. Therefore, the voice is limited to infrequent grunts and hisses.[42]
The beak is slightly hooked and is relatively weak compared with those of other birds of prey.[39] This is because it is adapted to tear the weak flesh of partially rotted carrion, rather than fresh meat.[38] The nostrils are oval and set in a softcere.[43] The nasal passage isperforate, not divided by aseptum, so that when looking from the side, one can see through the beak.[44] The eyes are prominent, and, unlike those of eagles, hawks, and falcons, they are not shaded by a brow bone.[43] Members ofCoragyps andCathartes have a single incomplete row of eyelashes on the upper lid and two rows on the lower lid, whileGymnogyps,Vultur, andSarcoramphus lack eyelashes altogether.[45]
New World vultures have the unusual habit ofurohidrosis, or defecating on their legs to cool themevaporatively. As this behavior is also present in storks, it is one of the arguments for a close relationship between the two groups.[7]
New World vultures are restricted to the western hemisphere, ranging from southern Canada to South America.[46] Most species are mainly resident, but the turkey vulture breeds in Canada and the northern US andmigrates south in the northern winter.[47] New World vultures inhabit a large variety of habitats and ecosystems, ranging fromdeserts totropical rainforests and at heights of sea level to mountain ranges.[46] These species of birds are also occasionally seen in human settlements, perhaps emerging to feed upon the food sources provided from roadkills.[citation needed]
New World vultures and condors do not build nests, but lay eggs on bare surfaces. On average one to three eggs are laid, depending on the species.[36] Chicks are naked on hatching and later growdown. Like most birds, the parents feed the young byregurgitation.[43] The young arealtricial, fledging in 2 to 3 months.[42] California Condor chicks fledge anywhere from 5–6 months, while Andean condor chicks fledge anywhere from 6–10 months.[48][49]
All living species of New World vultures and condors arescavengers. Their diet consists primarily ofcarrion, and they are commonly seen near carcasses. Other additions to the diet include fruit (especially rotten fruit) and garbage. The genusCathartes locates carrion by detecting the scent ofethyl mercaptan, a gas produced by the bodies of decaying animals. Theolfactory lobe of thebrains in these species, which is responsible for processing smells, is particularly large compared to that of other animals.[50] Other species, such as the American black vulture and the king vulture, have weak senses of smell and find food only by sight, sometimes by followingCathartes vultures and other scavengers.[41]
Vultures possess a very acidic digestive system, with their gut dominated by two species of anaerobic bacteria that help them withstandtoxins present in decaying prey.[51] In a 2014 study of 50 (turkey and black) vultures, researchers analyzed the microbial community ormicrobiome of the facial skin and the large intestine.[52] The facial bacterial flora and the gut flora overlapped somewhat, but in general, the facial flora was much morediverse than the gut flora, which is in contrast to other vertebrates, where the gut flora is more diverse. Twoanaerobic faecal bacteria groups that are pathogenic in other vertebrates stood out:Clostridia andFusobacteriota (formerly Fusobacteria). They were especially common in the gut with ClostridiaDNA sequence counts between 26% and 85% relative to total sequence counts, and Fusobacteriota between 0.2% and 54% in black vultures and 2% to 69% of all counts in turkey vultures. Unexpectedly, both groups of anaerobic bacteria were also found on the air-exposed facial skin samples, with Clostridia at 7%–40% and Fusobacteriota up to 23%. It is assumed that vultures acquire them when they insert their heads into the body cavities of rotten meat. The regularly ingested Clostridia and Fusobacteriota outcompete other bacterial groups in the gut and become predominant. Genes that encode tissue-degrading enzymes and toxins that are associated withClostridium perfringens have been found in the vulture gutmetagenome. This supports the hypothesis that vultures do benefit from the bacterial breakdown of carrion, while at the same time tolerating the bacterial toxins.[52]
The California condor iscritically endangered. It formerly ranged from Baja California to British Columbia, but by 1937 was restricted to California.[53] In 1987, all surviving birds were removed from the wild into a captive breeding program to ensure the species' survival.[53] As of 2020, theYurok Tribe and the California Condor Recovery Program reported the total population at 504: 329 in the wild and 175 in captivity.[54]
The Andean condor isvulnerable.[23]The American black vulture, turkey vulture, lesser yellow-headed vulture, and greater yellow-headed vulture are listed as species of Least Concern by theIUCN Red List. The king vulture is also listed as Least Concern, although there is evidence of a decline in the population.[55]
The American black vulture and theking vulture appear in a variety ofMaya hieroglyphs inMayan codices. The king vulture is commonly represented, with itsglyph being easily distinguishable by the knob on the bird's beak and by the concentric circles that represent the bird's eyes.[56] It is sometimes portrayed as a god with a human body and a bird head.[56] According to Mayan mythology, this god often carried messages between humans and the other gods. It is also used to represent Cozcaquauhtli, the thirteenth day of the month in theMayan calendar.[56] Meanwhile, the American black vulture is normally connected with death or shown as a bird of prey, and its glyph is often depicted attacking humans. This species lacks the religious connections that the king vulture has. While some of the glyphs clearly show the American black vulture's open nostril and hooked beak, some are assumed to be this species because they are vulture-like, painted black, and lack the king vulture's knob.[56]
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